EXERCISE 8.12 FIFO versus LIFO: A Challenging Analysis

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EXERCISE 8.12 FIFO versus LIFO: A Challenging Analysis G LO8-1,4LO8-2,@LO8-3,4L08-4,4LO8-5,4 LO8-6,4L08-7 Ford Motor Company uses FIFO and LIFO to account for different segments of its inventories. A note to the company’s recent financial statements indicated that if FIFO had been used for the entire inventory, the total amount of inventory would have been almost
9.8 billion vs. $8.9 billion). a. Indicate whether each of the following financial measurements would have been higher, lower, or unaffected had Ford Motor Company used FIFO for its entire inventory. Explain the reasoning behind your answers: 1. Gross profit rate. 2. Reported net income. 3. Current ratio (Ford’s current ratio is greater than 1). 4. Inventory turnover rate. 5. Accounts receivable turnover rate. 6. Cash payments made to suppliers. 7. Net cash flow from operations (Ford’s operating cash flows are positive). b. Provide your own assessment of whether using LIFO has made Ford Motor Company more or less liquid and well-off. Defend your answers.
EXERCISE 8.12 FIFO versus LIFO: A Challenging Analysis G LO8-1,4LO8-2,@LO8-3,4L08-4,4LO8-5,4 LO8-6,4L08-7 Ford Motor Company uses FIFO and LIFO to account for different segments of its inventories. A note to the company’s recent financial statements indicated that if FIFO had been used for the entire inventory, the total amount of inventory would have been almost
9.8 billion vs. $8.9 billion).

a. Indicate whether each of the following financial measurements would have been higher, lower, or unaffected had Ford Motor Company used FIFO for its entire inventory. Explain the reasoning behind your answers:
1. Gross profit rate.
2. Reported net income.
3. Current ratio (Ford’s current ratio is greater than 1).
4. Inventory turnover rate.
5. Accounts receivable turnover rate.
6. Cash payments made to suppliers.
7. Net cash flow from operations (Ford’s operating cash flows are positive).

b. Provide your own assessment of whether using LIFO has made Ford Motor Company more or less liquid and well-off. Defend your answers.

Argumentative Essay about the 4th Amendment

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Read the “School Cell Phone Policy” memo. Then click the link to the synopsis of the Klump v. Nazareth Area School District (2005) court case and read the facts of that case carefully. Pay special attention to the Nazareth Area High School’s cell phone policy as outlined in the court case.

Prompt: Write a well-developed argument essay in which you take a position on whether the actions committed by school employees as outlined in the court case violated the student’s Fourth Amendment rights.

My argument is that it did violate the student’s fourth amendment rights.

Consider whether adopting the cell phone policy found in the memo would have been sufficient to defend school officials against the counts initially filed against them in the lawsuit. Examine the court’s analysis of the case to decide whether different school rules would have affected the decision in this lawsuit.

Remember to establish a complete thesis statement, including a claim and reasons, and to recognize and address counterclaims. Use evidence from both source documents to support your ideas.

____________________________________________________________________

First Reading:

Community School District 233

Owendale, Michigan

“Anchored in Excellence”
Date: October 15, 2009

To: Parents/Guardians and Students of District 233

From: Dr., Superintendent of Schools

Subject: Cell Phones and Electronic Devices Policy

On October 4, the District 233 School Board met in a special session to discuss the widespread use of cell phones and other electronic devices on district campuses. It is estimated that this year over 70 percent of middle school and high school students in our district will carry a cell phone to school. The board’s special session was prompted by a general concern that irresponsible use of these devices is disruptive to the learning environment and can create discipline problems. The popularity of cell phones with cameras, Internet access, and text messaging has prompted school administrators to express concern about how to prevent privacy violations and cheating. Additionally, these devices are frequently damaged, lost, or stolen.

To date, there has been no official district policy regarding the use of such devices. Utilizing input from administrators, teachers, students, and parents, the board has now rectified that lapse in policy and wishes to propose that the Student Handbook be amended to include the following Cell Phones and Electronic Devices Policy:

The district strongly encourages parents/guardians and students to carefully consider whether it is necessary to bring cell phones and other electronic devices to school. If students do choose to bring these devices to school, they are subject to these policy guidelines:

-Cell phones and other electronic devices must be turned off and kept out of sight during the school day unless an individual teacher directs otherwise. Parents/guardians are reminded that in the event of an emergency, the main office is the most appropriate means of contacting your child.
-Cell phones and other electronic devices may not be used in any manner that would disrupt educational activities or assemblies.

-No electronic device may be used to photograph or record someone without his or her consent.

-Cell phones and other electronic devices must not interfere with the climate of trust and respect essential for an effective learning environment (refer to Ethics and Honesty Policy in the Student Handbook, pages 123–126).

-Teachers and administrators have the right to confiscate any device that is being used in a manner deemed inappropriate. Devices will be returned to the student at the end of the school day unless the student is a repeat offender (see disciplinary action guidelines below).

-Cell phones and other electronic devices may be used before and after school, but only within designated areas (these areas will vary by school).

-The security of electronic devices brought onto the school grounds is the sole responsibility of the student. The district will not accept responsibility for devices that are lost, stolen, or damaged at school or while traveling to and from school.
Students who violate the rules set forth above will be subject to the following disciplinary action:

First Violation: Student will receive a written warning, and the school will notify a parent/guardian about the violation.

Second Violation: The cell phone or other device will be confiscated and returned during a parent/guardian conference held to discuss the violation.

Third Violation: The cell phone or other device will be confiscated, the parent/guardian will be contacted, and the student will be assigned school service or suspended, depending on the individual circumstance.

Parents/guardians are an integral part of ensuring their children’s compliance with this policy. The board is asking that both parents/guardians and students review the policy carefully. Following this thorough review, both parties should sign and return the attached compliance acceptance form to acknowledge their observance of this amendment. Parents/guardians are encouraged to contact their school principal at 201-456-7890 or the district superintendent’s office at 201-456-7800 with questions or for any further information regarding the policy.

Sincerely,

Dr.

Second Reading

Background
This summary presents the constitutional issues considered in a lawsuit that a student and his parents brought against a Pennsylvania school district. The school district, the defendant in the lawsuit, was asking the court to dismiss a number of the original counts in the suit. The US District Court addressed constitutional rights as it considered which counts were valid.
Klump v. Nazareth Area School District (2005)
IN THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR THE EASTERN DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA
TOBY KLUMP, LEIGH KLUMP and CHRISTOPHER KLUMP,Plaintiffs

vs.

NAZARETH AREA SCHOOL DISTRICT; VICTOR J. LESKY, Superintendent; MARGARET GRUBE, Assistant Principal; and SHAWN KIMBERLY KOCHER, teacher, Defendants
Facts of the Case
Plaintiffs Toby Klump and Leigh Klump are the parents of plaintiff Christopher Klump, who was a student at Nazareth Area High School, operated by defendant Nazareth Area School District.

Plaintiffs filed a 10-count lawsuit against the school district, superintendent, assistant principal and teacher alleging several federal and state claims. Before the court is defendants’ motion to dismiss plaintiffs’ First Amended Complaint. …

The events giving rise to plaintiffs’ First Amended Complaint occurred on March 17, 2004. At that time, plaintiff Christopher Klump was a student at Nazareth Area High School.

The high school has a policy which permits students to carry, but not use or display cell phones during school hours. On March 17, 2004 Christopher’s cell phone fell out of his pocket and came to rest on his leg. Upon seeing Christopher’s cell phone, Shawn Kimberly Kocher, a teacher at the high school, enforced the school policy prohibiting use or display of cell phones by confiscating the phone. These events occurred at approximately 10:15 a.m.

Subsequently, Ms. Kocher, along with Assistant Principal Margaret Grube, began making phone calls with Christopher’s cell phone. Ms. Kocher and Ms. Grube called nine other Nazareth Area High School students listed in Christopher’s phone number directory to determine whether they, too, were violating the school’s cell phone policy.

Next, defendants Kocher and Grube accessed Christopher’s text messages and voice mail. Finally, defendants Kocher and Grube held an America Online Instant Messaging conversation with Mr. Klump’s younger brother without identifying themselves as being anyone other than the primary user of the cell phone, Christopher Klump.

On March 22, 2004, Christopher Klump’s parents, plaintiffs Toby Klump and Leigh Klump, met with Ms. Kocher, Ms. Grube, and Assistant Superintendent Diane Dautrich regarding the events of March 17. During that meeting, Ms. Grube told Mr. and Mrs. Klump that while she was in possession of their son’s phone, Christopher received a text message from his girlfriend … [including ] a reference [Ms. Grube interpreted as drug-related] … and prompted her subsequent use of the phone to investigate possible drug use at the school.

Based upon the foregoing facts, plaintiffs [the student and his family] filed a Complaint in the Northampton County Court of Common Pleas. The lawsuit was removed to federal court by defendants on July 29, 2004. Plaintiffs’ First Amended Complaint alleges ten causes of action stemming from the violation of various state and federal protections.

…

Counts VI, VII and VIII assert claims based on rights guaranteed by the United States Constitution and by the Pennsylvania Constitution. Count VI, against defendants Grube and Kocher, alleges violation of plaintiff Christopher Klump’s Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. Count VII alleges that defendants school district, Lesky, Grube and Kocher violated plaintiffs’ similar rights to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures under Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Count VIII, against the school district, avers a violation of plaintiff Christopher Klump’s Fourth Amendment rights, without specifying which particular rights.

…
Search and Seizure by Defendants Grube and Kocher
In Count VI, plaintiffs assert a violation of Christopher Klump’s Fourth Amendment rights by defendants Grube and Kocher. Plaintiffs aver that by accessing Christopher’s phone number directory, voice mail, and text messages, and subsequently using the phone to call individuals listed in the directory, defendants Grube and Kocher violated Christopher’s Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. In addition, plaintiffs assert that defendants are liable for damages pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1983.25.

Defendants aver that plaintiffs cannot prevail on their Fourth Amendment claim because the search was justified at its inception and was reasonable in scope. … Finally, defendants argue that defendants Grube and Kocher are entitled to qualified immunity from section 1983 claims unless plaintiffs can prove that these defendants violated a clearly-established constitutional right and that a reasonable person in the same position would have known that their conduct violated a constitutional right. …

Plaintiffs dispute defendants’ assertion that the search was justified at its inception, arguing that there were no exigent circumstances justifying defendants’ search. Plaintiffs also argue that their factual averments regarding defendants’ search of plaintiff Christopher Klump’s cell phone adequately detail defendants’ misconduct. Finally, plaintiffs argue that defendants Grube and Kocher knew or should have known that their search was unconstitutional. Plaintiffs aver that knowledge of the improper nature of their actions is evidenced by the fact that Ms. Grube and Ms. Kocher deleted the messages and phone calls they made from the cell phone’s memory card.

Initially, the parties disagree whether the text message from Christopher’s girlfriend was received while defendants were in possession of the phone, as averred by defendants, or was discovered only after defendants had accessed Christopher’s stored text messages, as plaintiffs contend. Therefore, plaintiffs dispute the factual premise by which defendants reach their conclusion that the search was justified at its inception. …[W]e must accept all of the allegations of plaintiffs as true and draw all reasonable inferences in favor of plaintiffs. Regardless of the persuasiveness of defendants’ analysis, we cannot rely on their factual summary, which differs materially from plaintiffs’.

Although students are protected by the Fourth Amendment, the probable cause requirement does not apply to students at school. (New Jersey v. T.L.O, 1985) The Supreme Court has held that a student search must nevertheless satisfy the reasonableness requirement of the Fourth Amendment. In the context of searches conducted by school officials, this means that the search must be justified at its inception and reasonable in scope. (New Jersey v. T.L.O.) To be justified at its inception, there must be “reasonable grounds for believing that the search will turn up evidence that the student has violated or is violating either the law or the rules of the school.” (New Jersey v. T.L.O.)

Here, defendant Kocher was justified in seizing the cell phone, as plaintiff Christopher Klump had violated the school’s policy prohibiting use or display of cell phones during school hours. In calling other students, however, defendants Grube and Kocher were conducting a search to find evidence of other students’ misconduct, which they may not do under the standard articulated above. They had no reason to suspect at the outset that such a search would reveal that Christopher Klump himself was violating another school policy; rather, they hoped to utilize his phone as a tool to catch other students’ violations.

Further, we must accept plaintiffs’ allegation that the school officials did not see the allegedly drug-related text message until after they initiated the search of Christopher’s cell phone. Accordingly, based upon the averments of the Complaint, which we must accept as true at this stage, there was no justification for the school officials to search Christopher’s phone for evidence of drug activity.

Moreover, the law in this area is not as unsettled as defendants suggest. It is clear, based on the case law cited by defendants, that students have a Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures by school officials. (New Jersey v. T.L.O.) Although the meaning of “unreasonable searches and seizures” is different in the school context than elsewhere, it is nonetheless evident that there must be some basis for initiating a search. A reasonable person could not believe otherwise. Accordingly, we deny defendants’ motion to dismiss Count VI against defendants Grube and Kocher on the basis of qualified immunity.

Although paragraphs 100, 101 and 102 of plaintiffs’ First Amended Complaint are not particularly clear, it appears that plaintiffs are asserting in these paragraphs that because the defendant school employees Grube and Kocher are liable for violating Christopher Klump’s rights to be secure from unreasonable searches and seizures under both the United States Constitution (Count VI) and the Pennsylvania Constitution (Count VII), defendant school district is equally liable for those violations. We believe that this is sufficient to state a claim in Count VIII.
Decision Regarding Constitutional Issues
Accordingly, remaining in this lawsuit are the following claims:

(4) in Count VI, the claim of plaintiff Christopher Klump against defendants Grube and Kocher for violation of his Fourth Amendment rights

(5) in Count VII, the claim of plaintiff Christopher Klump against defendants school district, Lesky, Grube and Kocher for violation of his rights under Article I, Section 8 of the Pennsylvania Constitution;

(6) in Count VIII the claim of plaintiff Christopher Klump against the school district for violation of his Fourth Amendment rights. …

t is essential for schools to balance the need for maintaining discipline with respecting the rights and privacy of students, ensuring that policies are in compliance with the law

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

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Psychopathology studies various abnormal cognitions. In regards to mental illness or distress, psychopathology studies what causes them, their symptoms, mental disorders, categorization, interventions, and strategies that can be used to reduce their prevalence. The causes of mental illness can be behavioral, genetic, emotional, cognitive, interpersonal, developmental, social or cultural.

Biological Factors
Research has shown that the development of psychopathology can be influenced both by genetics and neuroscientific factors. Predisposition to certain mental health disorders can be associated with genetics. Studies show that various psychiatric disorders can be hereditary and can be passed from one family member to the other (McNaughton, 2020). Biological mechanisms associated with psychopathology, such as brain structure and neurotransmitter function, can be influenced by a variation in genes.

Neuroscientific factors such as abnormalities in brain function, brain structure and connectivity can be associated with various mental health disorders. Variations in neural circuitry, neurotransmitter systems and brain regions that are involved in decision making, emotion regulation and cognition are a significant contributor to the development and manifestation of psychopathology.

Psychological Factors

Many mental health disorders can be attributed to maladaptive behavioral patterns and dysfunctional thought. Psychopathology can be influenced by behavioral factors such as substance abuse, avoidance and interpersonal difficulties. Cognitive processes that can be associated with the maintenance of symptoms include distorted thinking patterns, maladaptive coping strategies and negative self-beliefs.

Emotional factors have a significant role in an individual’s mood, their behavior and their perception of things. Dysregulated emotions such as pervasive sadness, heightened anxiety or intense anger can all be associated with mental health disorders. An individual who is unable to regulate their emotions may experience impaired functioning and exacerbated symptoms.

Developmental factors are also commonly associated with mental health disorders. Developmental experiences, especially childhood experiences, play a significant role in vulnerability to psychopathology and psychological functioning during adulthood. When an individual experiences adverse childhood experiences, neglect, trauma or attachment disruptions, they are at a higher risk of developing mental health disorders (Boland, Verdiun, & Ruiz, 2020). Transitioning into new developmental milestones may also be a contributing factor to the development and course of psychopathology.

Social, Cultural, and Interpersonal Factors

The social environment such as family dynamics, socioeconomic status, social support networks and peer relationships can all be of influence to the onset and course of psychopathology. Going through stressful life events such as trauma, loss or adversity can be the cause for or exacerbate mental health disorders (Hyde et al., 2020). On the other hand, having a supportive social environment can help reduce stress and improve mental health.

Cultural factors that may influence psychopathology include cultural norms, beliefs and values. The beliefs, norms or values people have in regards to mental health shape the attitude they have towards mental health disorders and how they respond to mental health problems.

Interpersonal interactions and relationships also have a significant level of influence on psychopathology. A dysfunction in interpersonal dynamics such as invalidation or conflict may cause mental health problems. Supportive and healthy interpersonal relationships, on the other hand, may help improve emotional regulation and mental health.

In conclusion, there are many factors that influence psychopathology are complex and can be biological, psychological or social factors. It is important to holistically understand these factors in order to improve assessment, diagnosis and treatment of mental health disorders.

References

Boland, R., Verdiun, M., & Ruiz, P. (2020). Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Hyde, L. W., Gard, A. M., Tomlinson, R. C., Burt, S. A., Mitchell, C., & Monk, C. S. (2020). An ecological approach to understanding the developing brain: Examples linking poverty, parenting, neighborhoods, and the brain. American Psychologist, 75(9), 1245. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000741Links to an external site.

McNaughton, N. (2020). Personality neuroscience and psychopathology: should we start with biology and look for neural-level factors?. Personality Neuroscience, 3, e4. https://doi.org/10.1017/pen.2020.5Links to an external site.

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Collapse SubdiscussionJennifer Matis
Jennifer Matis
1:43pmFeb 28 at 1:43pm
Biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal factors influence the development of psychopathology. Genetic factors can influence the development of psychopathology by contributing to an individual’s vulnerability or predisposition to specific mental health conditions. For example, certain gene variations may affect the production or functioning of neurotransmitters, which can impact mood regulation, cognition, and behavior (Boland et al., 2022). These genetic factors, combined with environmental factors, can interact and increase the likelihood of developing psychopathology (Boland et al., 2022). Psychological factors, such as behavioral and cognitive processes, emotional experiences, and developmental influences, can also play a significant role in the development of psychopathology. Thoughts, behaviors, and emotions can interact and precipitate the onset and maintenance of mental health conditions. For instance, negative thinking patterns or maladaptive coping strategies can worsen or exacerbate symptoms (Boland et al., 2022).

Additionally, early life experiences and developmental factors can shape psychological well-being. Social, cultural, and interpersonal factors also significantly impact the development of psychopathology. An individual’s social environment, including family dynamics, peer relationships, and cultural norms, can form a person’s mental health (Cheung & Mak, 2018). Experiencing trauma or living in a stressful social environment can increase the risk of developing psychopathology (Cheung & Mak, 2018). Cultural expectations, stigmas, and beliefs about mental health can also exert influence on how symptoms are perceived and expressed. Interpersonal relationships, such as the quality of support and connection with others, can also affect well-being (Cheung & Mak, 2018). The development of psychopathology is influenced by a combination of genetic, neuroscientific, psychological, and social factors. The genes and brain structures can contribute to predisposition, while psychological factors like thoughts, behaviors, and emotions play a role in symptom development (Garber & Bradshaw, 2020). Social, cultural, and interpersonal factors also shape an individual’s mental health. It is a complex interplay of various factors that integrate into the understanding of psychopathology.

References

Boland, R. & Verduin, M. L. & Ruiz, P. (2022). Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry (12th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.

Cheung, F. M., & Mak, W. W. S. (2018). Sociocultural factors in psychopathology. In J. N. Butcher & J. M. Hooley (Eds.), APA handbook of psychopathology: Psychopathology: Understanding, assessing, and treating adult mental disorders., Vol. 1Links to an external site.Links to an external site.. (pp. 127–147). American Psychological Association. https://go.openathens.net/redirector/waldenu.edu?url=https://doi.org/10.1037/0000064-006Links to an external site.

Garber, J., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2020). Developmental psychopathology and the research domain criteria: Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 49(3), 341–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1753205Links to an external site.

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Collapse SubdiscussionChikamunario Joy Ekeke
Chikamunario Joy Ekeke
2:37pmFeb 28 at 2:37pm
Nurs 6635-week 1 Discussion: Development of psychopathology

Several factors influence the development of individual psychopathology. These factors include biological, which may be in the form of genetics, neuroscience, age, gender, brain trauma and environmental situation of the individual person (Harden et al (2019); Psychological factor that comprises of life stressful events such as loss of loved ones, loss of jobs, divorce etcetera, environmental situations like the safety issues, twin studies, drugs issues etc. and sociocultural factors may be poverty, illiteracy etc. In fact, family history of psychiatric symptoms exacerbates more symptoms in an individual with psychiatric conditions since it may be somewhat inherited.

Biological Influence: Genes have a great impact on the development of psychopathology in an individual. The type of gene, how it grows from fetal formation to adulthood and environment/people the gene grows matters a lot on the psychopathology of an individual. In fact, mental health change is dependent upon the genes, environment, and exposure of an individual person. Trauma to any part of the brain will result to one type of psychiatric disorder or another, since human brain comprises of neuronal functions such as attention, memories, visual functions, language/speech, motor activities etc. Research has shown that traumatic brain injury may result in psychiatric disorders like anxiety, depression, aggression, and heightened effect of delinquencies. (Connolly & McConnolly, 2019). Any imbalance to the chemical neurotransmitter seen in the central nervous system may result in psychopathological issues. For instance, Serotonin imbalance usually leads to depression, dopamine imbalance also leads to schizoaffective disorders (schizophrenia). Issues on the amygdala and Cingulate gyrus that are responsible for fear and anxiety could increase these symptoms (Jackson & Milberg, 2018). Body homeostasis is regulated by the thalamus and if there is any alteration to this area or even to hippocampus, orbitofrontal etcetera, all may lead to emotional disturbances like anxiety disorders, depression, PTSD or even bipolar disorders. According to CDC, (2011), gene studies (as in twin studies) revealed that gene expression may be a factor in the inheritable psychiatric conditions coupled with the environmental influences. All these can lead to the experiences of low childhood IQ, childhood self-control disability , childhood maltreatment, adolescent victimization and increased inflammation conditions.

Psychological Influences: several psychological issues influence the mental health of an individual. Rejection, divorce, loss of loved ones, unemployment, low self-esteem, maladaptive coping (like avoidance), body image issues, poor lifestyle issues like eating disorders, abuse of drugs, negative thinking, poor conflict resolution, pessimism, perfectionism etcetera, all contribute to development of psychopathological conditions (Caspi et al, 2024). The life experiences of humans such as education, healthcare management, affluence or poverty nature usually determine or influence the expression of genes, which may severely alter or change the distribution of a specific synapse and its connections and resulting in behavioral changes (Stahl, 2013). The dynamic human nature affects individuals at different stages of their lives. The changes may be through epigenesis, neurobiological, societal, or cultural levels. These interactions or experiences acquired (may be via family, peers, school, policies, mass media, culture, etcetera.) are bound to change overtime, leaving the individual to also change in behavior to adapt to the system (Master & Kalstabakken, 2018). This may result in any of the psychiatric conditions like depression, anxiety or even schizophrenia, if not catch early and institute appropriate management. Food shortage, poor housing (overcrowding, poor heating condition), and poor transportation services can subject individuals to different types of psychiatric conditions like depression, anxiety, suicide ideation etcetera.

Sociocultural and interpersonal Influence: Poor socioeconomic status/conditions are highly attributed to different poor mental health. Research has shown that there is a high incidence of mental health issues amongst low-income individuals with poor education, unemployment, including mental health disparities seen in different races, ethnicities as well as sexual and gender orientation (Cheug & Mark, 2018). For instance, low-income workers like the migrants etc suffer more from mental health disorders due to fear of deportation, emotional constraints, and domineering management. Culture influences greatly how people interact with each other, feel, behave, and think about the society they found themselves in. Some culture as in race/ethnicity, income status, gender and sexual orientation including language barrier, could lead people to suffer mental health issues like depression, anxiety, self-injurious behavior, and suicide attempts. All these discriminations and isolation could prevent individuals from normal interactions and deprive them of acquiring knowledge and information that can help them live quality healthy lives (Alegria et al., 2018). Interpersonal relationship could be healthy or not healthy in that stigmas are laid on some individuals or population for instance, in some African countries, mental illness is viewed as a taboo that families are being discriminated if anyone in that family suffers schizophrenia or any other mental illness, they will be isolated from the society, and nobody would like to marry from the family or even befriend them. Hence, such families are in a dilemma of speaking out or coming out to seek for help or get treatment for their mental illnesses.

References

Alegría, M., NeMoyer, A., Falgàs Bagué, I., Wang, Y., Alvarez, K. (2018). Social Determinants of Mental Health: Where We Are and Where We Need to Go. Curr Psychiatry Rep.. doi: 10.1007/s11920 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6181118/

Casp, I. A., Houts, R. M., Fisher, H. L., Danese, A., Moffitt, T. E. (2024).The general factor of psychopathology (p): Choosing among competing models and interpreting p. Clin Psychol Sci. doi: 10.1177/21677026221147872
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10794018/Links to an external site.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Mental health awareness. https://www.cdc.gov/genomics/resources/diseases/mental.htmLinks to an external site.

Cheung, F. M., & Mak, W. W. S. (2018). Sociocultural factors in psychopathology APA handbook of psychopathology: Psychopathology: Understanding, assessing, and treating adult mental disorders. American Psychological Association.

https://doi-org.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1037/0000

Connolly, E.J., McCormick, B. F. (2018). Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Psychopathology in Adolescence: Evidence from the project on human development in Chicago neighborhoods. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(1), 79-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.12.023Links to an external site.

Links to an external site.Harden, K. P., Engelhardt, L. E., Mann, F. D., Patterson, M. W., Grotzinger, A. D., Savicki, S. L., Thibodeaux, M. L., Freis, S. M., Tackett, J. L., Church, J. A., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020). Genetic associations between executive functions and a general factor of psychopathology.
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry

Jackson, C .E., & Milberg, W. P. (2018). Examination of neurological and neuropsychological features in psychopathology. Psychopathology: Understanding, Assessing and Treating adult mental disorder. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/Links to an external site.

Masten, A. S., & Kalstabakken, A. W. (2018). Developmental perspectives on psychopathology in children and adolescents. APA handbook of psychopathology: Child and adolescent psychopathology. American. Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000065-002

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Collapse SubdiscussionMichelle J Vernon
Michelle J Vernon
3:45pmFeb 28 at 3:45pm
Explain the biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal factors that influence the development of psychopathology

Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, and the word refers to the characteristics of and the development of these disorders as well. Numerous factors influence the development of psychopathology such as biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal ones. Typically, mental disorders are the result of the interplay of these various factors. The causes are multidimensional and so, our approach to understanding and treating them must be multidimensional also.

Biological Factors:

Some of the biological factors that can contribute to the development of psychopathology are genetics, and brain development, structure, and function, which includes neurotransmitters and hormones, among other things (Smoller, Andreassen, Edenberg, Faraone, Glatt, & Kendler, 2019). Genetics can impact all these and can increase the likelihood of developing most mental disorders, and some developmental, cognitive, and neurological disorders that have mood and behavior components (Andreassen, et. al., 2019). Genetics are responsible for heritable traits like temperament that affect how individuals perceive and respond to their environment and this in turn can influence the development and treatment of psychopathology (Andreassen, et. al., 2019). Genetics also influence how our bodies respond to psychopharmacological treatments for mental disorders, and whether they are successful or not. Brain development (including neurotransmitter and hormone systems), structure, and function can be influenced by the prenatal health, environment, and behavior of our mothers. This in turn influences our risks of developing psychopathology (Andreassen, et. al., 2019). Sometimes, a number of these things occur together.

Psychological Factors:

Psychological factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology include cognitive processes, personality, emotional and behavioral traits, coping mechanisms, and developmental conditions that can influence all these things (Isaksson, Johan, Zetterqvist, Vendela, Ramklint, & Mia, 2021). Biology can influence cognition, personality, emotions, and behavior to an extent, but environment and life experiences play a significant role in the development and treatment of psychopathology (Isaksson, et. al., 2021). Some risk factors may be avoidable, but many are situational occurrences that are outside of our control. Trauma and stress, whether acute or chronic, can impact how our brains develop and function, how we interpret and respond to things, and whether we recover and thrive (Isaksson, et. al., 2021). Our environment and experiences can be positive and supportive of healthy psychological development, or they can result in a negative feedback loop that leads to and reinforces unhealthy psychopathology.

Social Factors:

Social factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology include race, gender, sexual preference, culture, discrimination, socioeconomic status, access to resources, living and/or workplace conditions, safety, social support, and connections with friends, family, and the community (Cheung, & Mak, 2018). When these factors result in negative, stressful, deficient, unhealthy conditions, they can give rise to mental health disorders and physical health disorders. Conversely, when these factors are positive and supportive, they can protect against mental and physical illness. They can also contribute to better treatment outcomes for/recovery from these illnesses.

Cultural Factors:

Cultural factors that may influence psychopathology include cultural norms, beliefs, values, customs, traditions, practices, expectations, attitudes, and stigma around mental health (Cheung, & Mak, 2018). These factors can result in differences in the perception of what constitutes a mental disorder and how someone is diagnosed, treated, and supported across different cultures (Cheung, & Mak, 2018). These can be protective factors for people with strong cultural ties or they can be risk factors that exacerbate psychopathology and impede treatment and recovery, especially if someone conflicts with their predominant culture.

Interpersonal Factors:

Interpersonal factors influencing psychopathology include relationships, social and community connections and support, communication, and conflict resolution skills (Cheung, & Mak, 2018). Again, when there are deficits in these areas, they can lead to the development of psychopathology, and when they are positive traits/factors, they can protect against it. Hopefully, it is apparent that there is considerable overlap and influence between all of these – biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal factors.

Reference:

Cheung, F. M., & Mak, W. W. S. (2018). Sociocultural factors in psychology. In J. N. Butcher

& J. M. Hooley (Eds.), APA handbook of psychopathology: Psychopathology:

Understanding, assessing, and treating adult mental disorders., Vol 1. (pp. 127-147).

American Psychological Association. https://doi-Links to an external site.

org.ezp.waldenlibrary.org/10.1037/0000064-006

Isaksson, Johan, Zetterqvist, Vendela, Ramklint, & Mia. (2021). Psychological and social

risk factors associated with development of psychopathology, controlling for biological

influence. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 34(6):p 600-607. https://doi.org/

10.1097/YCO.0000000000000744

Smoller, J. W., Andreassen, O. A., Edenberg, H. J., Faraone, S. V., Glatt, S. J., & Kendler, K.

(2019). Psychiatric genetics and the structure of psychopathology.Molecular
psychiatry, 24(3), 409–420. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-017-0010-4

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Collapse SubdiscussionOluwatoyin Omolade Omosebi
Oluwatoyin Omolade Omosebi
4:56pmFeb 28 at 4:56pm
Explain the biological (genetic and neuroscientific), psychological (behavioral and cognitive processes, emotional, developmental), and social, cultural, and interpersonal factors that influence the development of psychopathology.

Introduction

The term psychopathology is derived from two Greek words: ‘psyche’ meaning’ soul’ and ‘pathos’ meaning’ suffering’. Currently, the term ‘psychopathology’ refers to the genesis, progression, and symptoms of mental diseases. Traditionally, people suffering from mental diseases have been treated by the psychiatric profession, which uses the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2002) or ICD-10 (WHO, 1992) to identify mental illnesses. As a result, psychiatrists use the word ‘psychopathology’ more frequently than other professionals. Psychiatrists are medical professionals who specialise in mental health and can treat patients with medicine or any of the psychotherapy models they have received training in.

Schultze, Schmidt, and Theodoridou (2018) suggest a different approach. Psychopathology may be defined as the scientific investigation of aberrant mental states that, for more than a century, has offered a Gestalt for psychiatric diseases and led both therapeutic and scientific advances in modern psychology. A complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors has an impact on psychopathology, or the expression of mental diseases. Here is an overview of each.

Biological Factors:
Genetic: Understanding the genetics of mental diseases reveals a complicated interaction between genes, environment, and epigenetics. A combination of genetic variations is what causes mental illnesses like schizophrenia and depression. Genetic predispositions interact with environmental variables, such as stress and trauma, to influence the onset and severity of mental diseases. Epigenetic processes control gene expression in response to environmental inputs. Gene-environment correlations show how genetic predispositions impact behaviors and environmental exposures. Advances in genomics provide insights into unique gene expression patterns linked to mental diseases, paving the possibility for individualised therapies. In conclusion, the genetic story of psychopathology highlights the complex link between genes and environment, providing promise for more focused therapies based on individual genetic profiles.

Neuroscientific: According to Oktar (2006). Neuroscience studies the nervous system, particularly the biological foundation of consciousness, perception, memory, and learning. Neuroscience connects our observations of cognitive behaviour to the physical mechanisms that underpin such behavior. The nervous system may be considered a lineage structure that self-organizes and alters throughout time. Modern imaging techniques like MRI and PET have helped neuroscientific research demonstrate anatomical and functional abnormalities in the brains of people with mental illnesses. The prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus frequently display altered structure and function, associated with symptoms including anxiety, hallucinations, and impulsivity. Disruptions in functional connectivity within brain networks lead to psychiatric symptoms. This neuroscientific approach expands our understanding of mental disease and holds promise for developing focused therapies and diagnostic instruments.

Psychological Factors:
Behavioural Processes: Behavioural theories explain how learned actions contribute to the emergence and persistence of psychopathology. Individuals develop maladaptive coping methods for suffering through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. The effects of these activities reinforce them, resulting in their long-term persistence. Understanding these behavioral processes is critical for developing successful interventions like behavioural therapies, which attempt to change maladaptive habits and promote healthy coping mechanisms.

Cognitive Processes: Cognitive theories claim that skewed thought processes contribute to the persistence of mental diseases. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) addresses maladaptive cognitions and assists individuals in developing more adaptive ways of thinking and functioning, however, according to Postle (2006). A standard model resulting from the fusion of psychological theory and neuroscience evidence has been the main inspiration for cognitive neuroscience research on working memory.

Emotional Processes: Emotional processes significantly impact people’s perceptions and responses to their surroundings. Hence, they play an essential part in mental health. Emotional dysregulation, which is frequent in many mental diseases, refers to difficulty in successfully controlling and expressing emotions. Emotion-focused treatments improve emotional awareness and regulatory abilities by teaching how to constructively detect and interact with emotions. Tailoring therapeutic procedures to address emotional vulnerabilities is critical for fostering long-term healing and resilience. Individuals who integrate emotional well-being into treatment can build adaptive coping strategies and reduce the influence of mental diseases on their overall well-being.

Developmental Factors: Attachment bonds, parenting styles, and childhood trauma are all developmental elements that have a significant impact on people’s mental health outcomes. Early experiences shape fundamental beliefs, coping mechanisms, and susceptibility to psychopathology. Secure bonds and authoritative parenting foster resilience, but insecure attachments and adverse childhood experiences raise the likelihood of mental health issues. Recognising and responding to developmental effects in treatments is critical for improving emotional well-being and resilience across the lifespan. Top of Form

Social, Cultural, and Interpersonal Factors
Social Factors: Social support functions as a stress buffer and boosts resilience, whereas social isolation, bullying, and socioeconomic inequities raise the chance of developing psychopathology. Social solid relationships offer emotional, instrumental, and informational support, promoting a sense of belonging and security. In contrast, a lack of social support and negative social experiences can cause feelings of loneliness, alienation, and separation, increasing mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety. Socioeconomic inequities exacerbate discrepancies in mental health outcomes. Addressing socioeconomic determinants of mental health is critical to fostering well-being and creating inclusive societies.

Cultural Factors: Cultural influences have a significant impact on how people perceive mental illness, impacting their help-seeking habits, treatment preferences, and stigma. Beliefs regarding mental health differ among cultures, influencing how symptoms are conveyed and perceived. Cultural competency in mental health care is critical, including the awareness of varied beliefs and partnership with traditional healers. Accepting cultural variety results in more inclusive and effective mental health care for all people.

Interpersonal Factors: Interpersonal variables tremendously influence mental health, altering people’s sense of self and emotional well-being. Dysfunctional family dynamics, conflictual relationships, and abusive events influence psychopathology. Family therapy and couples therapy are examples of therapeutic methods that target relationship concerns, promoting better communication and more significant connections. Recognising the centrality of interpersonal interactions in mental health emphasizes the need for comprehensive treatment options.

Finally, a thorough knowledge of the biological, psychological, and social factors of psychopathology is required for mental health promotion and successful therapeutic approaches. Mental health practitioners may develop resilience, minimize stigma, and enhance the overall quality of life for those suffering from mental illnesses by treating these issues holistically. Furthermore, including varied viewpoints and culturally sensitive techniques ensures that mental health care is accessible and inclusive to all people, regardless of background or circumstance.

Reference

APA (2002) DSM-IV-TR® Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition, revised) (Vancouver, American Psychiatric Association).

Oktar, N. (2006). Theory of neuroscience. Journal of Neurological Sciences, 23(3), 155-158.

Postle, B. R. (2006). Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain. Neuroscience, 139(1), 23-38.

Schultze-Lutter, F., Schmidt, S. J., & Theodoridou, A. (2018). Psychopathology—a precision tool in need of re-sharpening. Frontiers in psychiatry, 9, 446.

WHO (1992) ICD-10: The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriiptions and Diagnostic Guidelines (Copenhagen, World Health Organization).

Collapse SubdiscussionYahyli Gonzalez Munoz
Yahyli Gonzalez Munoz
5:02pmFeb 28 at 5:02pm
Factors that Influence the Development of Psychopathology

Psychopathology is caused by myriad interacting factors, which require contributions from the neural sciences, genetics, psychology, and social-cultural sciences to accurately express, classify, diagnose, and manage these conditions. Nurse practitioners working in the mental health field should take a multidimensional, integrative approach and incorporate theoretical perspectives to understand biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal factors that influence the development of psychopathology. According to Mollon et al. (2021), biological factors that influence the development of psychopathology include neurobiological processes like brain structure, neural circuitry, neurotransmitter function, and genetic factors, which explain why conditions like bipolar disorders and schizophrenia run in families.

Psychological factors that influence the development of psychopathology include behavioral and cognitive processes, emotional factors, and developmental factors. As noted by Isaksson et al. (2021), cognitive distortions and maladaptive behavioral patterns explain why people present with avoidance behaviors and negative symptoms in psychiatric conditions like anxiety and depressive disorders. Isaksson et al. (2021) also noted that psychiatric patients often struggle with managing and expressing their emotions because mental health disorders cause emotional dysregulation. Psychopathologies are likely to develop in later life for children who experienced traumatic events or those who had delayed developmental milestones.

Social factors influencing the development of psychopathology include social stresses, limited access to resources, and lack of social support, which increase the risk of developing mental health issues (McNaughton, 2020). Cultural factors influencing the development of psychopathology include cultural values, norms, and beliefs, which can contribute to stigma or help-seeking behaviors (Isaksson et al., 2021). Interpersonal factors that influence the development of psychopathology include dysfunctional interpersonal patterns, peer influence, and lack of social support systems.

References

Isaksson, J., Zetterqvist, V., & Ramklint, M. (2021). Psychological and social risk factors associated with the development of psychopathology, controlling for biological influence. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 34(6), 600-607. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000744Links to an external site.

McNaughton, N. (2020). Personality neuroscience and psychopathology: Should we start with biology and look for neural-level factors? Personality Neuroscience, 3, e4. https://doi.org/10.1017/pen.2020.5Links to an external site.

Mollon, J., Knowles, E. E., Mathias, S. R., Rodrigue, A., Moore, T. M., Calkins, M. E., & Glahn, D. C. (2021). Genetic influences on externalizing psychopathology overlap with cognitive functioning and show developmental variation. European Psychiatry, 64(1), e29. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.21Links to an external site.

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Collapse SubdiscussionMichelle Renee Thompson
Michelle Renee Thompson
5:52pmFeb 28 at 5:52pm
Discussion Post /6635C
​Biological factors that influence the development of Psychopathology are genetics, brain structures, the endocrine system, and neurotransmitters all play a role in the development of mental disorders (Casio, 2023).
Psychological factors that influence the development of psychopathology are a family history of mental illness, socioeconomic deprivation, cognitive and self-regulation difficulties that are present early in life and negative experiences in childhood and in adolescence and inflammation are all factors that influence the development of psychopathology (West, 2021).

Exposure to poverty and violence are contributing factors that influence the development of psychopathology. Physical and Psychosocial stressors are strong determinants. Lack of coping skills, lack of self-concept and motivational systems. Lack of awareness and motivation to seek help for psychological abnormalities or the ability to recognize that there is a problem can also manifest into the development of untreated psychopathologies(Marsella, 2021).

​

References
Caspi, A., & Houts, R. M. (2023). Clinical Psychological Science, 12(1). Retrieved February 28, 2024, fromLinks to an external site.

Marsella, A. J. (2021). Culture and psychopathology: foundations, issues, directions. Psychology today. Retrieved February 28, 2024, fromLinks to an external site.

West, R. (2021). Biological elements of psychopathology. Abnormal Psychology. Retrieved February 28, 2024, fromLinks to an external site.

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Collapse SubdiscussionHope Hodari Nyina-Muntu
Hope Hodari Nyina-Muntu
6:17pmFeb 28 at 6:17pm
Main Discussion

Factors that Influence the Development of Psychopathology

The field of psychopathology, which delves into the study of abnormal psychological conditions, unveils a captivating interplay of biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors that intricately shape the emergence and evolution of mental disorders. A comprehensive understanding of these dimensions is essential for unraveling the complexities of mental disorders and for tailoring effective prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies. This discussion post embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the multifaceted dimensions within this realm on the complex landscape of psychopathology.

Biological Factors

The origins of psychopathology can be traced to the delicate intermingling of genetic predisposition and neuroscientific intricacies. Genetic factors lay the cornerstone for an individual’s vulnerability to mental disorders, with specific genetic variations and mutations associated with conditions such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder (Montag & Panksepp, 2020). This genetic backdrop converges with the intricate dance of neuroscientific mechanisms. Imbalances in neurotransmitters, disruptions in crucial brain regions, and deviations in neural circuitry collectively contribute to the genesis of mental disorders. For example, serotonin imbalances underpin the roots of depression, while dopamine dysregulation is central to the expression of conditions like schizophrenia (Jackson & Milberg, 2018). Thus, biological factors form the foundational framework upon which the tapestry of psychopathological conditions unfolds.

Psychological Factors

The narrative of psychopathological development finds its protagonists in an array of intricate psychological processes. Behaviors, both learned and conditioned, occupy a significant role in this spectrum. Maladaptive behaviors, reinforced by consequential outcomes, set in motion self-perpetuating cycles within various mental disorders (Boland et al., 2022).Yet, it is the realm of cognitive processes that imparts depth to this narrative. Distorted thought patterns and cognitive biases interlock to weave the fabric of conditions like anxiety and depression. These cognitive distortions not only tint self-perception but also intricately shape the lens through which the world is perceived (Boland et al., 2022). Furthermore, emotional processes play a pivotal role. Challenges in emotional regulation and heightened emotional reactivity enhance susceptibility to disorders like borderline personality disorder and substance abuse (Speranza et al., 2023). Developmental processes, unfolding against the backdrop of critical life stages, further contribute to the trajectory. Experiences such as trauma, attachment styles, and environmental influences during formative years establish the framework for future psychopathological tendencies (Speranza et al., 2023).

Social, Cultural, and Interpersonal Factors

The intricate narrative of psychopathological development remains incomplete without considering the broader socio-cultural and interpersonal dimensions. Social factors, encompassing socioeconomic status, resource access, and social support networks, emerge as pivotal influencers (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2018). Individuals navigating disadvantaged backgrounds or contending with systemic discrimination face elevated risks of developing mental disorders. The vibrant tapestry of cultural factors intricately influences the presentation and interpretation of psychopathology. According to Fonagy et al., (2022), cultural norms, values, and expectations interplay with symptoms, resulting in diverse expressions of disorders across varied cultural contexts. Moreover, the interpersonal realm introduces a profound layer, as relationships and social interactions significantly impact mental well-being (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2018). Dysfunctional family dynamics, deficiencies in interpersonal skills, and the absence of robust social networks can all contribute to the emergence and perpetuation of mental disorders.

Conclusion

The intricate exploration of psychopathological development unveils a symphony of genetic predisposition, neuroscientific mechanisms, intricate psychological processes, and the rich socio-cultural and interpersonal tapestry. The biopsychosocial model, offering a panoramic view, provides a framework to understand the multifaceted dynamics underpinning mental disorders. Armed with this comprehensive perspective, researchers and clinicians stand poised to craft nuanced strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment, fostering not only the mitigation of psychopathology but also the cultivation of profound mental well-being within individuals and societies alike. As this intricate narrative continues to be unwound, a holistic approach will undoubtedly pave the way for a more insightful understanding of psychopathological development.

References

Boland, R. & Verduin, M. L. & Ruiz, P. (2022). Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry (12th ed.). Wolters Kluwer

Fonagy, P., Campbell, C., Constantinou, M., Higgitt, A., Allison, E., & Luyten, P. (2022). Culture and psychopathology: An attempt at reconsidering the role of social learning. Development and Psychopathology, 34(4), 1205-1220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421000092Links to an external site.

Jackson, C. E., & Milberg, W. P. (2018). Examination of neurological and neuropsychological features in psychopathology. American Psychological Association. 65–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000064-004Links to an external site.

Masten, A. S., & Kalstabakken, A. W. (2018). Developmental perspectives on psychopathology in children and adolescents. American Psychological Association. 15–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000065-002Links to an external site.

Montag, C., & Panksepp, J. (2020). Personality neuroscience: Why it is of importance to consider primary emotional systems!. Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences, 3830-3840. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1338

Speranza, A. M., Liotti, M., Spoletini, I., & Fortunato, A. (2023). Heterotypic and homotypic continuity in psychopathology: A narrative review. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1194249. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1194249Links to an external site.

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Collapse SubdiscussionGetz Bolivard
Getz Bolivard
6:32pmFeb 28 at 6:32pm
Biological Factors

Biological contributors to mental disorders include genetics, hormones, and brain chemistry. An estimated 40 to 70 percent of cognitive abilities, emotional responses, and personality traits are linked to genetic factors (Huda, 2021). Mental disorders are often due to dysregulation of dopamine, serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and norepinephrine (Iasiello et al., 2020). Genetics plays a critical role in creating proteins vital for neurotransmission and neuronal signaling in the brain. Disruptions in gene formation can interfere with these neural pathways and brain functionality. Biological influencers on psychopathology span psychological issues’ physical, chemical, genetic, or neurological aspects (Najib, 2023). These include prenatal exposure to harmful substances, inadequate nutrition, maternal psychological conditions, infections, brain anomalies, and stress during pregnancy. These factors highlight the role of genetics and brain chemistry in influencing behavior, with chemical imbalances playing a significant role (Huda, 2021).

Psychological Factors

Psychological contributors to psychopathology encompass the evolution of thoughts, emotions, and actions (Huda, 2021). Experiences of stress, significant psychological distress, or abuse, especially in childhood, can influence mental health issues later. For some, limited social connections and feelings of loneliness or isolation can also impact mental well-being (Huda, 2021).

Social, Cultural, and Interpersonal Factors

Mental health is significantly shaped by cultural perceptions and societal attitudes towards cultural norms (Huda, 2021). Healthcare providers must consider an individual’s cultural context, as behaviors seen as usual in one culture may not be in another, with normality being a culturally specific concept. Cultural factors necessitate mental health professionals to develop culturally sensitive and ethical assessments, diagnoses, and treatment plans (Huda, 2021). Various social or cultural stressors, like family dysfunction, loss, transitions in life, or societal expectations, can precipitate mental health issues in those already vulnerable (Huda, 2021; Najib, 2023).

References

Huda A. S. (2021). The medical model and its application in mental health. International Review of Psychiatry, 33(5), 463–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2020.1845125

Iasiello, M., & Van Agteren, J. (2020). Mental health and/or mental illness: A scoping review of the evidence and implications of the dual-continua model of mental health. Evidence Base, 3(1), 1-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.21307/eb-2020-001

Najib, A. (2023). Etiology of mental disorders & resistance: What is a mental disorder heavily influenced by indigenous peoples, culture, community psychological values from the perspective of Al-Qur’an interpretation? Journal for ReAttach Therapy and Developmental Diversities, 6(8s), pp. 28-39. https://jrtdd.com/index.php/journal/article/view/855

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Collapse SubdiscussionEbony Sudduth
Ebony Sudduth (She/Her)
7:48pmFeb 28 at 7:48pm
Factors that Influence the Development of Psychopathology

The American Psychological Association (2023) defines psychopathology as a discipline that encompasses theories and guidelines that are fundamental to the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental health disorders. It is important for Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioners to understand psychopathology because it is the underpinning for treatment planning and clinical practice guidelines that are diagnosis specific (Haywood et al., 2022). Several factors have been and continue to be influential in the field of psychopathology.

Biological Factors

Some examples of biological factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology include genetics, body systems that regulate hormone production (endocrine system), structures within the brain such as the prefrontal cortex and chemical messengers. Genetic epidemiology informs psychopathology by allowing researchers to gain insight into how genetic coding and DNA structures can predispose individuals to certain mental health illnesses (Smoller et al., 2018). Noted differences in clinical manifestations of mental illness can be observed in men versus women which may be attributed to sex hormones. Kundakovic and Rocks (2022) note that variations hormone levels in women can alter brain structures, and which can contribute to increased risks for certain psychiatric disorders among females. This also speaks to how alterations in neural pathways and vascularization can facilitate psychiatric conditions such as in vascular dementia. Alterations in chemical messengers commonly known as neurotransmitters are said to be causative factors of conditions such as depression and schizophrenia and are important players in the mechanism of actions of several psychotropic medications (Stahl, 2021).

Psychological Factors

Psychological trauma is an influencing factor in the field of psychopathology. Experiences such as emotional, sexual, or physical abuse can lead to PTSD, depression, and anxiety for some individuals. Childhood neglect and abuse can also lead to poor coping skills and emotional control during adulthood. Research has shown that alterations in neuronal pathways responsible for emotional regulation and cognitive functioning have been linked to childhood abuse/neglect (Jenness et al., 2020).

Social, Cultural, & Interpersonal Factors

Social, cultural, and interpersonal relationships play an integral role in the mental health and well being of individuals. According to Sederer (2016) a large proportion of the social determinants of health are compromised by one’s physical and social environment which impacts not only a person’s physical well-being, but also their mental health as well. Extreme deviations from societal, and cultural norms can in some instances indicate there is an underlying mental illness. For example, the DSM-5-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2022) notes that flights of ideas and excessive involvement in high-risk activities are included in the diagnostic criteria for a manic episode of a person with Bipolar I. If one were to observe a person during an active manic episode their behavior would be socially inappropriate. Also, social drug and alcohol use is an area that informs psychopathology. National Institute on Drug Abuse (2018) reports that 37.9% of the 20.3 million adults with a substance use disorder also has mental illness.

How Theoretical Perspectives on Psychopathology Impact PMHNP Clinical Practice

Theoretical perspectives on psychopathology impact the PMHNP’s clinical practice because these theories are the foundation on which clinical practice guidelines and standards of care are formed. PMHNP’s must understand these principles and how they inform their clinical practice to adequately care for the patients they serve. Sanati (2020) states that theories of psychopathology are crucial to the practice of psychiatry specifically during clinical practice.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Bipolar and Related Disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787.x03_bipolar_and_related_disorders

American Psychological Association. (2023). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. https://dictionary.apa.org/psychopathologyLinks to an external site.

Haywood, D., Baughman, F. D., Mullan, B. A., & Heslop, K. R. (2022). What Accounts for the Factors of Psychopathology? An Investigation of the Neurocognitive Correlates of Internalising, Externalising, and the p-Factor. Brain Sciences, 12(4), 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12040421Links to an external site.

Jenness, J. L., Peverill, M., Miller, A. B., Heleniak, C., Robertson, M. M., Sambrook, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2020). Alterations in neural circuits underlying emotion regulation following child maltreatment: a mechanism underlying trauma-related psychopathology. Psychological Medicine, 51(11), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291720000641

Kundakovic, M., & Rocks, D. (2022). Sex hormone fluctuation and increased female risk for depression and anxiety disorders: From clinical evidence to molecular mechanisms. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 66, 101010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101010Links to an external site.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2018, August 15). Comorbidity: Substance Use and Other Mental Disorders. National Institute on Drug Abuse. https://nida.nih.gov/research-topics/comorbidity/comorbidity-substance-use-other-mental-disorders-infographicLinks to an external site.

Sanati, A. (2020). An exploration of psychopathology for clinical practice. BJPsych Advances, 26(5), 296–298. https://doi.org/10.1192/bja.2020.37

Sederer, L. I. (2016). The Social Determinants of Mental Health. Psychiatric Services, 67(2), 234–235. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201500232Links to an external site.

Smoller, J. W., Andreassen, O. A., Edenberg, H. J., Faraone, S. V., Glatt, S. J., & Kendler, K. S. (2018). Psychiatric genetics and the structure of psychopathology. Molecular Psychiatry, 24(3), 409–420. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-017-0010-4Links to an external site.

Stahl, S. M. (2021). Stahl’s essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications. (5th ed.). Cambridge Univ Press.

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Collapse SubdiscussionSamantha Oswald
Samantha Oswald
7:59pmFeb 28 at 7:59pm
Discussion Post 1

Initial post

The development of psychopathology, which refers to the manifestation of psychological disorders or mental illnesses, is influenced by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. Understanding these factors is crucial for comprehending the etiology and progression of various mental health conditions.

Biological factors:

Genetic predispositions significantly influence the development of psychopathology. Conditions like schizophrenia and bipolar illness have a significant genetic influence. Genetics usually combine with environmental circumstances, and certain genes may heighten vulnerability rather than directly leading to illnesses (Gartstein, et al., 2018)
Neuroscientific elements like brain anatomy, function, and neurotransmitter activity play a role in psychopathology. Structural anomalies, disturbances in neurochemical levels such as serotonin and dopamine, and disrupted neural pathways can all play a role in the development of different mental health disorders. Abnormalities in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex are linked to anxiety disorders and depression.

Psychological factors:

Behavioral processes: Maladaptive behaviors can play a role in the creation and persistence of mental disorders. Reinforcement, conditioning, and learnt responses impact behaviors related to mental health disorders.
Psychological problems sometimes stem from dysfunctional thought patterns and cognitive biases. Cognitive theories suggest that skewed thinking patterns, such as catastrophizing or black-and-white thinking, play a role in diseases such as depression, anxiety, and eating disorders.
Emotional processes are vital in psychopathology. Individuals with mood disorders, borderline personality disorder, and other problems often exhibit emotional dysregulation, characterized by heightened reactivity and trouble controlling emotions.
Developmental processes can be influenced by early experiences like attachment patterns, childhood trauma, and environmental stressors, which can impact the development of psychopathology (Zwicker, A. et. al, 2020). Adverse childhood experiences are associated with a higher likelihood of developing mental health problems in the future.

Social factors such as socioeconomic position, social support networks, and society norms impact mental health outcomes. Higher rates of psychopathology are linked to poverty, discrimination, and social isolation.
Cultural influences such as attitudes, values, and customs impact how mental health symptoms are expressed and understood. Some illnesses may be more common or present differently in other cultures.
Interpersonal elements, such as relationships and interpersonal dynamics, influence mental health. Interactions within the family, relationships with peers, and attachment styles might influence the emergence or worsening of mental diseases, especially in cases such as personality disorders (Loughnan, et al., 2022).

Gartstein, M. A., & Skinner, M. K. (2018). Prenatal influences on temperament development: The role of environmental epigenetics. Development and Psychopathology, 30(4), 1269–1303. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417001730Links to an external site.

Loughnan, R. J., Palmer, C. E., Makowski, C., Thompson, W. K., Barch, D. M., Jernigan, T. L., Dale, A. M., & Fan, C. C. (2022). Unique prediction of developmental psychopathology from genetic and familial risk. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 63(12), 1631–1643. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13649Links to an external site.

Zwicker, A., MacKenzie, L. E., Drobinin, V., Bagher, A. M., Howes Vallis, E., Propper, L., Bagnell, A., Abidi, S., Pavlova, B., Alda, M., Denovan-Wright, E. M., & Uher, R. (2020). Neurodevelopmental and genetic determinants of exposure to adversity among youth at risk for mental illness. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 61(5), 536–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13159Links to an external site.

The sequence of events spanning from 1776 to 1861,

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The sequence of events spanning from 1776 to 1861, which ultimately culminated in the American Civil War, represents a significant aspect of history that modern historians recognize as pivotal in understanding the origins and causes of the conflict. These pre-Civil War events exerted both long-term and short-term influences on the unfolding of the War, with notable occurrences such as the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States in 1860 leading to the pivotal event of the Fall of Fort Sumter in April of the same year.

During this period, the contentious issues surrounding states’ rights steadily intensified within Congress, evolving from the early stages following independence. Congress grappled with resolving significant issues that directly impacted the states, subsequently giving rise to further tensions and divisions. Consequently, the history of the United States from 1776 to 1861 is characterized by a complex interplay of political disputes, disagreements, and escalating tensions between the Southern states—dominated by the interests of slaveholders—and the Northern states, which remained loyal to the Union.

The unfolding events during this timeframe served to exacerbate the sectional crisis, deepening political divisions and laying the groundwork for the Civil War. These events effectively highlighted the distinct regional identities of the North and South, which predated the crisis itself and contributed to the perception of the two regions as enduring and contrasting entities.

Guide to Crafting a Comprehensive Term Paper

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Guide to Crafting a Comprehensive Term Paper

The term paper, often seen as the culmination of a semester’s academic efforts, holds significant importance for students pursuing higher education. Interestingly, the origins of the term paper can be traced back to ancient Greece, where scholars such as Plato and Aristotle utilized written works to explore and document their philosophical ideas. Just as these esteemed thinkers once penned their thoughts, students today can embark on their intellectual journey with confidence and skill.

Understanding the Purpose of a Term Paper

A term paper serves as a platform to showcase not only one’s understanding of a subject but also research skills and ability to effectively communicate complex ideas. It serves as a structured format that guides students in presenting their ideas logically and seamlessly. Packed with valuable insights on writing, organization, and time management, this resource aims to equip students with the necessary tools to excel in academic writing.

Defining a Term Paper

A term paper, a crucial aspect of college education, is typically assigned towards the end of a semester. It serves as a means for educators to assess students’ comprehension of course content and their ability to apply that knowledge to real-world scenarios. Writing a term paper goes beyond mere summarization of facts; it requires organization, in-depth research, and analytical presentation of findings.

Starting Your Term Paper

Before embarking on the writing process, it’s crucial to familiarize oneself with the term paper format and guidelines provided by instructors. Procrastination should be avoided, and dedicated time should be allocated each day for research and writing. Here are some valuable tips to kickstart your term paper journey:

  1. Refine Your Topic: Cultivate a learning mindset to effectively organize thoughts and research the chosen topic.
  2. Engage Your Readers: Initiate brainstorming sessions to captivate readers with intriguing questions, anecdotes, or persuasive statistics.
  3. Develop a Clear Thesis Statement: Ensure your thesis statement encapsulates the main idea of your paper concisely.
  4. Understand Style Requirements: Familiarize yourself with specific formatting guidelines, such as APA format, to ensure compliance.
  5. Conduct Thorough Research: Dive into the subject matter using reputable sources and discerning research methods.
  6. Begin Writing: Start writing without obsessing over perfection, as you can always revise later. Initiate the writing process as soon as sufficient information is gathered.

Suggested topics for Environmental Studies research projects/proposals

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Environmental Studies as an academic field is the product of efforts to understand and respond to the variety of changes humans have wrought in our world. Students in Environmental Studies are motivated by concern for welfare of the many human and non-human communities that shape this planet. The Environmental Studies Program actively cultivates in our students both engagement with and informed reflection about those communities. To this end, the curriculum includes an interdisciplinary core that encourages students to explore the social, aesthetic, ethical, scientific, and technical aspects of environmental questions; concentrations that allow students to approach these questions with more focused knowledge and methodological tools; a community-engaged research course; and an internship with an environmentally focused organization or business.
Environmental Science Learning Objectives:
Environmental Sciences shall qualify students for research of international standard and for other work in society where there are high demands on scientific insight and analytical thinking, in accordance with recognized scientific principles and standards in research ethics.
Students will demonstrate their ability to communicate effectively in written and oral form, demonstrating the ability to create an appropriate annotated bibliography and the ability to use effective presentation skills.
1. Project Instructions:

Try to ensure that your report contains the following elements:

a. Title page – This should include the project title and names of all group members. You can also list the name of your teacher.

b. Executive Summary – It is a very brief summary of the report’s contents. It should be about half a page. This is one of the most important components of the report. It should begin with a clear statement of what the project is about so that the nature and scope of the project can be understood by a lay reader.

c. Acknowledgements – It is usual to thank those individuals who have provided particularly useful assistance during your project.

d. Contents page – This should list the main chapters and (sub) sections of your report. Choose self-explanatory chapter and section titles and use double spacing for clarity. You should include page numbers indicating where each chapter/section begins. Try to avoid too many levels of subheading – three is sufficient.

e. Body of report – The central part of the report should consist of three chapters detailing the actual work undertaken during the project. You need to discuss the content of these sections thoroughly with your teacher.

f. Conclusions – The project’s conclusions should list the things which have been learnt as a result of the work you have done.

g. Appendix and Bibliography – Use appendices to contain information which is peripheral to the main body of the report. You should try to bind all your material in a single volume if possible. Document the data collected from a text book, a magazine, or a website identifying its sources while using the appropriate form.

Suggested topics for Environmental Studies research projects:
1. Environmental impact of agriculture.
2. Pollution.
3. Deforestation.
4. Overpopulation.
5. Industrial and Household Waste.
6. Acid Rain.
7. Ozone Layer Depletion.
8. Genetic Engineering.
9. Ecological succession.
10. Ecological effects of biodiversity.
11. Wildlife Conservation and Species Extinction.
12. Sustainable Development.
13. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
14. Environmental Sustainability—necessary for survival.
15. Or;
16. Environmental Sustainability and Challenges in Sustainable Development:
17. Population, poverty, environment, and climate dynamics in the developing world.
18. Impact of a Growing Population on Natural Resources: The Challenge for Environmental Management.
19. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.
20. Food security.
21. Sustainable Energy and cultural challenges of transitioning to a more sustainable energy future.
22. Green future.
23. Green Building & Infrastructure.
24. Waste management and disposal strategy.
25. Climate Change.
26. Global Warming.
27. The impact of political, economic, socio-cultural, environmental and other external influences
28. Environmental resource management

How should Bismarck use the five‐step process contained in FASB ASC 606 to recognize revenue?

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Case 5-4
Accounting for University Tuition and Housing
Bismarck University, a for‐profit private institution, publishes its tuition and housing costs on its website. These fees are different for the various educational levels and programs offered. The university also offers various aid packages to students including scholarships and discounts for both tuition and housing. Upon acceptance to the university, a student must pay a nonrefundable deposit to maintain a spot. The university later sends a bill for the remaining balance that is due a month prior to the start of the semester. There is an add/drop period (first two weeks of the semester) when the student may receive a partial refund of the total amount of tuition and housing charged.

Required:
How should Bismarck use the five‐step process contained in FASB ASC 606 to recognize revenue?

What is the most ethical approach dealing with environmental problems?

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POLS201 Critical/Ethical Thinking Assignment

There are two warring viewpoints in environmental ethics. Anthropocentric ethicists believe that human interests should be considered before natural interests. Ecocentric ethicists find intrinsic value in nature’s existence, and believe that destroying it is wrong even though it’s non-human.

What is the most ethical approach dealing with environmental problems?

(1)What is meant by the term “ecological health” and why is it important?   What domestic and international political factors make improving “ecological health” difficult?

(2) Briefly discuss each of the creative breakthroughs/alternatives discussed by the authors. P. 433-435

(3) Social, political and ethical considerations should be used in the discussions of each of the alternatives and as rational for the student’s discussion of their position.

(4) Which of the creative breakthroughs is most desirable, feasible and prudent? Explain why.  Which is the least desirable, feasible, and prudent? Explain why.

(5) Are you optimistic about the ability of political forces to help to ensure the health of the world’s environment?

Approximately 2 1/2-3 pages, 12 font, double spaced.

Sources will include the textbook and two outside sources.

Cite your sources in your text as you write and at the end of the paper using APA style.

My textbook is The New World of Politics an introduction to Political Science 4th Edition

 

According to the textbook, of the branches of representative democracy, the legislative is the most “representative” of you. With this in mind, identify who represents you in the US House and who represents you in the US Senate.

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According to the textbook, of the branches of representative democracy, the legislative is the most “representative” of you. With this in mind, identify who represents you in the US House and who represents you in the US Senate.

Next, briefly describe your US House Representative and your two (2) US Senators. What are the issues that are important to them? Are they also issues of importance to you? Are there issues of importance to you that seem less important to them? After addressing these, conclude by answering the following: Do you agree that those in the legislative branch are representative of you? Why or why not?

Please upload as a typed, double-spaced, 12-point font, 500-word count, Word document. Use the text and unit links/resources as your primary sources, as well as the official web pages for those who represent you. If you choose to use any other outside sources, cite them using MLA or APA format.

Student notifies you that she has been subjected to bullying through a classmate’s Facebook page

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Student notifies you that she has been subjected to bullying through a classmate’s Facebook page.

Write an essay of 500-750 words in which you address the following:

Provide the steps you are required to take that are consistent with state statutes, your district’s school board policies, faculty handbook, and the student handbook;
Any First Amendment arguments you think the student with the Facebook page may raise; and
Responses you could make to the First Amendment arguments that are consistent with the cases in the assigned readings.
Include at least five references in your essay.

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center.

This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.

You are required to submit this assignment to LopesWrite. A link to the LopesWrite technical support articles is located in Class Resources if you need assistance.

Educated
https://www.nfhs.org/articles/cyberbullying-challenging-legal-issues-for-schools/
https://advance-lexis-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/document?crid=babac22b-528f-403c-a1de-2f68e6b3579c&pddocfullpath=%2Fshared%2Fdocument%2Fcases%2Furn%3AcontentItem%3A3S4X-FYF0-003B-418P-00000-00&pdsourcegroupingtype=&pdcontentcomponentid=6443&pdmfid=1516831&pdisurlapi=true
http://fod.infobase.com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/p_ViewVideo.aspx?xtid=60350
https://advance-lexis-com.lopes.idm.oclc.org/document?crid=32548a93-dbd3-4395-b1e2-c3f67cbbcc9c&pddocfullpath=%2Fshared%2Fdocument%2Fcases%2Furn%3AcontentItem%3A3S4X-FBM0-003B-S2KY-00000-00&pdsourcegroupingtype=&pdcontentcomponentid=6443&pdmfid=1516831&pdisurlapi=true