“Sugar in School Breakfasts: A School District’s Perspective”

/in , /by

Sugar in School Breakfasts: A School District’s Perspective

As schools across the nation strive to improve the health and well-being of students, the issue of sugar in school breakfasts has become a significant topic of discussion. While breakfast is considered the most important meal of the day, helping to boost energy and focus, the high sugar content in many school-provided meals has raised concerns among educators, nutritionists, and parents alike. From a school district’s perspective, the balance between providing nutritious, affordable, and appealing meals remains a constant challenge. This article delves into the impact of sugar in school breakfasts, the rationale behind current practices, and efforts to reduce sugar while maintaining student engagement with school meal programs.

The Role of Breakfast in Student Health and Performance

Research consistently shows that children who eat breakfast perform better academically, have better memory retention, and demonstrate improved concentration in class. Breakfast also helps regulate mood and behavior, particularly in younger students. For many students, especially those from low-income families, the school-provided breakfast may be their only meal to start the day.

Given the crucial role that breakfast plays, it is essential that the meal be nutritious. However, many popular school breakfast items, such as sugary cereals, pastries, and flavored milk, contain excessive amounts of sugar, which has sparked debate about the health implications of these foods.

Why Is Sugar So Prevalent in School Breakfasts?

Several factors contribute to the high sugar content in school breakfasts:

  1. Cost Efficiency: School districts often operate under tight budgets when it comes to meal programs. Processed foods, which often contain added sugars, are typically cheaper and have a longer shelf life. These products are easier to distribute to large numbers of students and are often more affordable than fresh, whole foods.
  2. Student Preferences: Schools are faced with the challenge of serving meals that students will actually eat. Sugary items like flavored yogurts, cereal bars, and sweetened milk are highly popular among children, leading schools to offer these items to ensure participation in the breakfast program. School districts fear that if they eliminate or reduce sugar-heavy options, participation may drop, and students could skip breakfast altogether.
  3. Regulatory Standards: While there are federal guidelines in place for school meals, they allow for a certain level of added sugars. Programs like the National School Lunch Program and School Breakfast Program provide some flexibility to schools, but often focus more on calorie and nutrient intake (such as vitamins and minerals) rather than strictly limiting sugar.

Health Impacts of High-Sugar Breakfasts

Although providing any breakfast is better than none, the long-term impact of excessive sugar consumption is concerning. High sugar intake, especially in the morning, can lead to several negative health outcomes, including:

– Energy Crashes: Sugary breakfasts can cause a quick spike in blood sugar levels followed by a sharp crash, leading to fatigue, irritability, and difficulty concentrating—exactly the opposite of what a breakfast meal is supposed to do.

– Obesity: Excessive sugar intake is linked to childhood obesity, a growing concern in the United States. School breakfasts that are high in sugar contribute to the daily sugar intake of students, many of whom are already consuming too much sugar outside of school.

– Increased Risk of Chronic Diseases: Consuming too much sugar over time can increase the risk of developing chronic conditions such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and dental problems. For schools, the challenge lies in balancing immediate student satisfaction with long-term health outcomes.

The School District’s Dilemma: Providing Nutritious Yet Appealing Meals

From a school district’s perspective, reducing sugar in breakfasts is not just a matter of nutrition—it’s also about participation and logistics. If students don’t find the meals appealing, participation in school breakfast programs could decline, leaving many students without any morning meal. Skipping breakfast entirely could lead to worse outcomes than a sugary breakfast, particularly for students who rely on the meal as their main source of nutrition.

Efforts to Reduce Sugar in School Breakfasts

Despite the challenges, many school districts are actively working to reduce the sugar content in their meal programs. Here are some strategies being implemented:

  1. Gradual Menu Changes: Some districts are introducing healthier breakfast items gradually to allow students time to adjust. For example, swapping sugary cereals for whole grain versions, or offering fresh fruit instead of fruit juice.
  2. Educating Students and Families: Nutrition education is key to long-term change. Many districts are incorporating lessons on healthy eating into their curriculum and are engaging families to make healthier choices at home as well. By creating awareness around the negative effects of sugar, districts hope to influence student preferences.
  3. Offering Healthier Alternatives: School districts are beginning to offer more whole foods, such as oatmeal, eggs, and whole grain toast, as alternatives to sugary items. The goal is to provide foods that are not only nutritious but also palatable to students.
  4. Reforming Beverage Options: A significant source of sugar in school breakfasts is flavored milk. Some school districts have started offering plain milk or water as the default beverage, with the option to choose a flavored version if desired. Reducing the availability of sugary drinks helps cut down on sugar without removing student choice entirely.
  5. Working with Suppliers: School districts are collaborating with food suppliers to create healthier options that fit within budget constraints. Some districts have successfully pushed for reformulated products with reduced sugar content, such as cereals and breakfast bars.

Conclusion: Finding the Balance

Reducing sugar in school breakfasts is a complex challenge for school districts, involving a careful balance of nutrition, budget, and student preferences. While the health risks associated with high sugar consumption are well-known, the realities of cost and participation cannot be ignored. To move forward, schools must continue to explore innovative solutions to provide healthier meals that students enjoy, while educating them on the importance of a balanced, low-sugar diet.

Ultimately, a holistic approach—one that includes menu changes, education, and stakeholder collaboration—can help school districts reduce sugar in breakfasts without sacrificing the participation that is vital to student health and academic success.

Legislation Testimony/Advocacy Statement

/in /by
Select a bill that has been proposed (not one that has been enacted) using the congressional websites provided in the Learning Resources. The Assignment: (1- to 2-page Legislation Grid; 1-page Legislation Testimony/Advocacy Statement) Be sure to add a title page, an introduction, purpose statement, and a conclusion. This is an APA paper. Part 1: Legislation Grid Based on the health-related bill (proposed, not enacted) you selected, complete the Legislation Grid Template. Be sure to address the following: Determine the legislative intent of the bill you have reviewed. Identify the proponents/opponents of the bill. Identify the target populations addressed by the bill. Where in the process is the bill currently? Is it in hearings or committees? Part 2: Legislation Testimony/Advocacy Statement Based on the health-related bill you selected, develop a 1-page Legislation Testimony/Advocacy Statement that addresses the following: Advocate a position for the bill you selected and write testimony in support of your position. Explain how the social determinants of income, age, education, or gender affect this legislation. Describe how you would address the opponent to your position. Be specific and provide examples. At least 2 outside resources and 2-3 course specific resources are used

The impact of COVID-19 on business management practices (case study: Tesco)

/in /by
Introduction
The aim of this assignment is to critically discuss the effects of Covid-19 on the management and, leadership practices in Tesco. According to Rosnizam et al., (2020), Tesco is a British multinational grocery and general merchandise retailer founded by Jack Cohen in 1919. It started as a small market stall in the East End of London, and it has grown to become the third-largest retailer in the world measured by gross revenues. According to Ng et al., (2019), today, Tesco operates in 11 countries, with over 6,000 stores and more than 450,000 employees worldwide. Tesco is primarily a retail business that sells a wide range of products, including groceries, clothing, electronics, and home appliances (Calvo, 2022). The company operates in various sectors, including food retail, clothing, and financial services. The company’s headquarters is located in Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire, in the UK. According to Karet al., (2021), Tesco’s organisational structure is designed around its various business units, including Tesco Superstores, Tesco Extra, Tesco Metro, and Tesco Express. The company has a hierarchical structure, with senior executives overseeing various departments and business units. 

The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on business management practices across industries, and Tesco, one of the largest retail chains in the UK, provides a compelling case study to explore these changes. Here’s an overview of the key impacts and how Tesco adapted its management practices in response to the pandemic:

1. **Supply Chain Management**

– **Impact**: Tesco faced disruptions in its global supply chain due to factory closures, transportation restrictions, and surging demand for certain products (like toilet paper, hand sanitizers, and groceries).
– **Response**: Tesco adapted by increasing collaboration with suppliers and diversifying its supply base. They also worked to manage stock levels efficiently, limiting bulk purchases and implementing rationing on high-demand items.

2. **Workforce Management**

– **Impact**: Tesco had to quickly adjust to government restrictions, leading to staff shortages due to illness or isolation and increased demand for online services.
– **Response**: To address these issues, Tesco introduced flexible working hours, hired temporary workers, and provided financial support to vulnerable employees. They also implemented safety measures such as personal protective equipment (PPE), social distancing, and regular sanitization within stores.

3. **Digital Transformation & E-commerce**

– **Impact**: With physical stores facing capacity limits and lockdowns, online shopping saw a sharp increase.
– **Response**: Tesco accelerated its digital transformation by scaling up its online delivery service and click-and-collect options. They expanded delivery slots, increased the number of staff for picking and packing online orders, and invested in technology to manage the surge in online demand.

4. **Customer Experience & Service**

– **Impact**: Customers’ expectations shifted during the pandemic, with more emphasis on safety, convenience, and contactless shopping experiences.
– **Response**: Tesco introduced various measures to improve the customer experience, such as offering priority delivery slots for vulnerable customers, implementing contactless payment methods, and setting up dedicated shopping hours for healthcare workers and the elderly. They also launched new mobile apps and streamlined the website for better service.

5. **Leadership and Crisis Management**

– **Impact**: The pandemic tested leadership and crisis management across the company. Decision-making had to become faster and more flexible to adapt to the rapidly changing situation.
– **Response**: Tesco adopted more agile leadership practices, with a focus on clear communication, transparency, and swift decision-making. Senior management held regular updates and communicated with employees and stakeholders to ensure everyone was informed about the company’s plans and safety measures.

6. **Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)**

– **Impact**: The pandemic raised the importance of CSR, as businesses were expected to support both their communities and employees during the crisis.
– **Response**: Tesco increased its involvement in community support, donating millions of meals to food banks and charities. They also introduced initiatives to support local communities and NHS workers. Tesco’s CSR efforts during the pandemic strengthened its brand image and customer loyalty.

7. **Financial Management**

– **Impact**: The uncertainty caused by the pandemic affected revenue streams, particularly in non-food segments, while operational costs increased due to health and safety measures.
– **Response**: Tesco implemented cost-cutting measures, focused on core business activities, and prioritized cash flow management. They temporarily halted dividend payments to maintain liquidity and reviewed their investment plans to align with the new business environment.

Conclusion

The COVID-19 pandemic forced Tesco to adapt its management practices significantly, focusing on agility, digital innovation, employee welfare, and supply chain resilience. These changes helped the company not only navigate the immediate challenges of the pandemic but also position itself for future growth in a post-pandemic world.

If you’d like, I can dive deeper into any specific aspect of Tesco’s response or provide more data-driven insights for your case study.

How to construct a good dissertation introduction?

/in /by

How to construct a good dissertation introduction?

Introduction Chapter

The Introduction might present discussions on the broader subject area and why it is interesting / relevant (eg, the practical and/or theoretical significance), more specific background on study area(s) / examples / themes, together with a brief overview of the structure of the Dissertation. It will certainly include the aims and objectives that are the central tenant of your Dissertation and that you will be critically analysing throughout. It is usually best to progress from the general to the specific, rather than the other way round (similar to when you choose your topic). This means that typically the theoretical aspects of the topic and its relevance should come before the specifics of case studies, field-site, etc. However, it may be necessary to introduce some of the later information here, particularly if it reinforces why the topic is of interest to the reader or emphasises any applied aspect of your work. Note that introductory (as well as concluding) chapters are often best written last.

Here are some key components of a good Introduction chapter:

  1. Background to the research or the context in which the research took place and why this subject or issue is important. In some cases, you might need to clarify key participants and/or ‘actors’ in the area under investigation, or some important trends or pivotal variables of which the reader needs to be made aware.
  2. Aim and objectives (or research questions): A clear and succinct statement of the aims and objectives that the Dissertation is going to address.
  3. Research rationale: The reasons why this study was carried out.
  4. Dissertation structure: What topics are going to be discussed in each of the chapters and how the chapters are related to each other. This section provides a ‘road map’ of the work ahead. Thus, at a glance, they can see (1) where they are starting from, (2) the context in which the journey is taking place, (3) where they are going to end up, and (4) the route which they will take to reach their final destination. Such a ‘map’ will enable the reader to navigate their way through your work much more easily and have maximum appreciation of what you have done.

 

draft

/in /by

Nowadays, most buildings are such as schools, offices, have been built with an open plan design. Discuss some of the reasons for this

/in /by

Benefits of Open Space Designs in Buildings
Open plan design on buildings is an architectural and interior design term referring to any floor plan that minimizes the use of small rooms that are enclosed, such as offices, and utilizes large open spaces (Kaufmann-Buhler, 2021). The layout of the open-plan office design enables employees and students to work in an open space on the same floor. It speaks about the nature of the office or building occupants (Turner & Myerson, 2000). The key principles for open plan designs on buildings include the creation of zones for a variety of activities, ensuring that there is proper natural lighting and ventilation, and considering flexible arrangements of furniture. Essentially, open-plan office designs have made conventional office cubicles redundant. Creative and collaborative workspace environment has come into force. Open-plan design has a significant impact on society and, therefore, has a number of benefits. It encourages collaboration and teamwork by virtue of enabling all workers to be in one open space. It also promotes communication between people who all operate under one roof. Offices operating under open plan design are associated with enhanced productivity, flexibility, and increased opportunities for networking. In schools, the open plan helps students learn teamwork and collaborate in solving complex problems (Prain et al., 2014). Some of the disadvantages of the open-plan building design are increased levels of distraction and noise, lack of privacy, high levels of stress, and overcrowded workspaces (Higgins et al., 2005). People are different; some prefer to have some privacy, while others prefer an open environment that is lively and energetic. Open-plan office design confines all people, irrespective of their preferences, in one space. It creates conflict in the way people interact by combining the outgoing and the conservative people in one space. However, it helps workers learn to coexist and share limited resources by accommodating each other. In consideration of the advantages associated with the open plan building design, most schools and offices are using the plan. The paper discusses the various reasons that have led to the building of open-plan designs for most buildings for offices and schools.
The open-plan building design has numerous benefits associated with it. Even though not all personalities like the planning design, some people who enjoy working in a fast-paced environment enjoy the open plan building design (Turner & Myerson, 2000). The design is useful for employees who are keen on networking and collaborating with other employees. The spaces thrive off by means of socializing and communicating. The building plan promotes the sharing of ideas and building comradeship. The plan is also critical to people who value a sense of community and culture. Therefore, as much as the open building design is not liked by everyone, people who value some of the aspects discussed above enjoy operating in open space building design.
Such kinds of people who like open environments enjoy collaborations brought about by the open plan building design (Turner & Myerson, 2000). The open Environment as a workplace for employees enhances communication between employees and students and helps them share ideas. The open Environment enables people in open spaces to share ideas with like-minded colleagues, and this promotes creativity and enhances collaboration for projects among the employees.
An open-plan building plan also fosters networking among people or office dwellers (Kim & De Dear, 2013). Networking applies to employees from different fields working in the same space and connecting by virtue of being in the same Environment. Every time that individuals interact with new people, it helps in forming new relationships and creates possibilities for collaboration. Through collaboration, people manage to accomplish much more than what could have been accomplished individually.
Open-plan buildings have a relaxed atmosphere due to proper lighting and air circulation (Mi et al., 2020). The nature and setting of open plan office design enhances workflow at the workspace or school. Working in a good working environment, which is a result of the plan and design of the offices and workspaces, enables workers to enjoy their time at their place of work. It creates a conducive space for students to learn. Open-plan designs have better aesthetic value than closed-plan offices. The open-plan building design provides more freedom and space to workers, which is not only appealing but also helps in enabling the workers to enjoy their time and space at work.
Closed spaces, which have been the conventional workplace design for a long time, are limiting and suffocating (Kaufmann-Buhler, 2021). The closed walls hinder openness and keep individuals in isolation. Spending a lot of time in isolation is not as insightful as working in an open space. Therefore, the open space work design opens up the minds of workers. They have unlimited potential because they meet as many people as possible. During such interactions, individuals share ideas that are inspiring and, therefore, result in out-of-the-world solutions that could not have been realized if such people had never met and had a chance to exchange ideas.
The principles on which the design for the open plan office spaces constitutes the benefits realizable from the open plan building design (Ching, 2023). One such principle is the balance of privacy and interaction between workers. The design of workspaces based on open building design is oriented at facilitating communication and interaction between the workers. To create a balance between privacy and interaction, the workspaces are portioned into different zones to ensure that, for example, people in the finance department are all in one open space office, which is different from that of their marketing counterparts. This ensures that sensitive information in the finance department is confined to that department. However, it provides an open space for workers in the finance team to interact and communicate openly.
The health of the interior Environment is optimized by having an open well, well-lit, and aerated working space. A healthy working space is vital for the physiological and emotional well-being of the workers and students (Prain et al., 2014). The natural light and aeration enable the creation of a healthy and productive environment for people. It enhances energy, mood, and the well-being of the employees and learners.
Open-plan office design is guided by the principles of flexibility and adaptability (Mi et al., 2020). This is more so important in the context of the dynamic nature of work preferences, needs, and patterns. Open-plan office designs are created in consideration of the varying types of work and temperament of individuals. It is meant to accommodate different scenarios, such as reorganization, downsizing, and growth at the workplace.
Every organization aspires to cut as much cost as possible. Open office design helps organizations reduce their operational costs (Higgins et al., 2005). Open office plans are very simple to build and maintain. The cost of building them is lower than the conventional closed office design because they require less construction material and labor costs. The temperatures and lights in the building are controlled naturally. Therefore, little or no additional cost is incurred.
In modern times, the working Environment has changed from bureaucratic and hierarchical workspaces to more collaborative spaces with lower levels of hierarchies (Ching, 2023). The changes are reflected in the modern office building design, where the managers and their junior employees all work in the same space and interact openly. Therefore, change in building style reflects the cultural shift at work and aligns physical spaces with values and practices in contemporary society.
In conclusion, the many benefits associated with open plan design for most buildings for offices and schools have led to the adoption of the building plan. Some of these benefits include promoting interaction and communication between the people working in the offices. Offices operating under open plan design are associated with enhanced productivity, flexibility, and increased opportunities for networking. The buildings are cheaper to build and maintain. They are also eco-friendly.

References
Ching, F. D. (2023). Architecture: Form, space, and order. John Wiley & Sons.
Higgins, S., Hall, E., Wall, K., Woolner, P., & McCaughey, C. (2005). The impact of school
Environments: A literature review. London: Design Council.
Kaufmann-Buhler, J. (2021). Open Plan: A Design History of the American Office. India: Bloomsbury Academic.
Kim, J., & De Dear, R. (2013). Workspace satisfaction: The privacy-communication trade-off in open-plan offices. Journal of Environmental Psychology, pp. 36, 18–26.
Mi, J., Hong, B., Zhang, T., Huang, B., & Niu, J. (2020). Outdoor thermal benchmarks and their application to climate‒responsive designs of residential open spaces in a cold region of China. Building and Environment, p. 169, 106592.
Prain, V., Cox, P., Deed, C., Edwards, D., Farrelly, C., Keeffe, M., Lovejoy, V., Mow, L., Sellings, P., Waldrip, B., & Yager, Z. (2014). Adapting to teaching and learning in open-plan schools. Springer.
Turner, G., & Myerson, J. (2000). New workspace, new culture. The Journal for Quality and Participation, 23(5), 45.

Art is considered an essential part of all cultures throughout the world. However, these days fewer and fewer people appreciate art and turn their focus to science, technology and business. What do you think is the reason for that? And what could be done to encourage more people to take interest in the arts? Discuss in 4 pages, CMS format, font 12, spacing 1.5

/in /by

Art is considered an essential part of all cultures throughout the world. However, these days fewer and fewer people appreciate art and turn their focus to science, technology and business. What do you think is the reason for that? And what could be done to encourage more people to take interest in the arts? Discuss in 4 pages, CMS format, font 12, spacing 1.5

EXERCISE 8.12 FIFO versus LIFO: A Challenging Analysis

/in , /by

EXERCISE 8.12 FIFO versus LIFO: A Challenging Analysis G LO8-1,4LO8-2,@LO8-3,4L08-4,4LO8-5,4 LO8-6,4L08-7 Ford Motor Company uses FIFO and LIFO to account for different segments of its inventories. A note to the company’s recent financial statements indicated that if FIFO had been used for the entire inventory, the total amount of inventory would have been almost
9.8 billion vs. $8.9 billion). a. Indicate whether each of the following financial measurements would have been higher, lower, or unaffected had Ford Motor Company used FIFO for its entire inventory. Explain the reasoning behind your answers: 1. Gross profit rate. 2. Reported net income. 3. Current ratio (Ford’s current ratio is greater than 1). 4. Inventory turnover rate. 5. Accounts receivable turnover rate. 6. Cash payments made to suppliers. 7. Net cash flow from operations (Ford’s operating cash flows are positive). b. Provide your own assessment of whether using LIFO has made Ford Motor Company more or less liquid and well-off. Defend your answers.
EXERCISE 8.12 FIFO versus LIFO: A Challenging Analysis G LO8-1,4LO8-2,@LO8-3,4L08-4,4LO8-5,4 LO8-6,4L08-7 Ford Motor Company uses FIFO and LIFO to account for different segments of its inventories. A note to the company’s recent financial statements indicated that if FIFO had been used for the entire inventory, the total amount of inventory would have been almost
9.8 billion vs. $8.9 billion).

a. Indicate whether each of the following financial measurements would have been higher, lower, or unaffected had Ford Motor Company used FIFO for its entire inventory. Explain the reasoning behind your answers:
1. Gross profit rate.
2. Reported net income.
3. Current ratio (Ford’s current ratio is greater than 1).
4. Inventory turnover rate.
5. Accounts receivable turnover rate.
6. Cash payments made to suppliers.
7. Net cash flow from operations (Ford’s operating cash flows are positive).

b. Provide your own assessment of whether using LIFO has made Ford Motor Company more or less liquid and well-off. Defend your answers.

Argumentative Essay about the 4th Amendment

/in /by

Read the “School Cell Phone Policy” memo. Then click the link to the synopsis of the Klump v. Nazareth Area School District (2005) court case and read the facts of that case carefully. Pay special attention to the Nazareth Area High School’s cell phone policy as outlined in the court case.

Prompt: Write a well-developed argument essay in which you take a position on whether the actions committed by school employees as outlined in the court case violated the student’s Fourth Amendment rights.

My argument is that it did violate the student’s fourth amendment rights.

Consider whether adopting the cell phone policy found in the memo would have been sufficient to defend school officials against the counts initially filed against them in the lawsuit. Examine the court’s analysis of the case to decide whether different school rules would have affected the decision in this lawsuit.

Remember to establish a complete thesis statement, including a claim and reasons, and to recognize and address counterclaims. Use evidence from both source documents to support your ideas.

____________________________________________________________________

First Reading:

Community School District 233

Owendale, Michigan

“Anchored in Excellence”
Date: October 15, 2009

To: Parents/Guardians and Students of District 233

From: Dr., Superintendent of Schools

Subject: Cell Phones and Electronic Devices Policy

On October 4, the District 233 School Board met in a special session to discuss the widespread use of cell phones and other electronic devices on district campuses. It is estimated that this year over 70 percent of middle school and high school students in our district will carry a cell phone to school. The board’s special session was prompted by a general concern that irresponsible use of these devices is disruptive to the learning environment and can create discipline problems. The popularity of cell phones with cameras, Internet access, and text messaging has prompted school administrators to express concern about how to prevent privacy violations and cheating. Additionally, these devices are frequently damaged, lost, or stolen.

To date, there has been no official district policy regarding the use of such devices. Utilizing input from administrators, teachers, students, and parents, the board has now rectified that lapse in policy and wishes to propose that the Student Handbook be amended to include the following Cell Phones and Electronic Devices Policy:

The district strongly encourages parents/guardians and students to carefully consider whether it is necessary to bring cell phones and other electronic devices to school. If students do choose to bring these devices to school, they are subject to these policy guidelines:

-Cell phones and other electronic devices must be turned off and kept out of sight during the school day unless an individual teacher directs otherwise. Parents/guardians are reminded that in the event of an emergency, the main office is the most appropriate means of contacting your child.
-Cell phones and other electronic devices may not be used in any manner that would disrupt educational activities or assemblies.

-No electronic device may be used to photograph or record someone without his or her consent.

-Cell phones and other electronic devices must not interfere with the climate of trust and respect essential for an effective learning environment (refer to Ethics and Honesty Policy in the Student Handbook, pages 123–126).

-Teachers and administrators have the right to confiscate any device that is being used in a manner deemed inappropriate. Devices will be returned to the student at the end of the school day unless the student is a repeat offender (see disciplinary action guidelines below).

-Cell phones and other electronic devices may be used before and after school, but only within designated areas (these areas will vary by school).

-The security of electronic devices brought onto the school grounds is the sole responsibility of the student. The district will not accept responsibility for devices that are lost, stolen, or damaged at school or while traveling to and from school.
Students who violate the rules set forth above will be subject to the following disciplinary action:

First Violation: Student will receive a written warning, and the school will notify a parent/guardian about the violation.

Second Violation: The cell phone or other device will be confiscated and returned during a parent/guardian conference held to discuss the violation.

Third Violation: The cell phone or other device will be confiscated, the parent/guardian will be contacted, and the student will be assigned school service or suspended, depending on the individual circumstance.

Parents/guardians are an integral part of ensuring their children’s compliance with this policy. The board is asking that both parents/guardians and students review the policy carefully. Following this thorough review, both parties should sign and return the attached compliance acceptance form to acknowledge their observance of this amendment. Parents/guardians are encouraged to contact their school principal at 201-456-7890 or the district superintendent’s office at 201-456-7800 with questions or for any further information regarding the policy.

Sincerely,

Dr.

Second Reading

Background
This summary presents the constitutional issues considered in a lawsuit that a student and his parents brought against a Pennsylvania school district. The school district, the defendant in the lawsuit, was asking the court to dismiss a number of the original counts in the suit. The US District Court addressed constitutional rights as it considered which counts were valid.
Klump v. Nazareth Area School District (2005)
IN THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT FOR THE EASTERN DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA
TOBY KLUMP, LEIGH KLUMP and CHRISTOPHER KLUMP,Plaintiffs

vs.

NAZARETH AREA SCHOOL DISTRICT; VICTOR J. LESKY, Superintendent; MARGARET GRUBE, Assistant Principal; and SHAWN KIMBERLY KOCHER, teacher, Defendants
Facts of the Case
Plaintiffs Toby Klump and Leigh Klump are the parents of plaintiff Christopher Klump, who was a student at Nazareth Area High School, operated by defendant Nazareth Area School District.

Plaintiffs filed a 10-count lawsuit against the school district, superintendent, assistant principal and teacher alleging several federal and state claims. Before the court is defendants’ motion to dismiss plaintiffs’ First Amended Complaint. …

The events giving rise to plaintiffs’ First Amended Complaint occurred on March 17, 2004. At that time, plaintiff Christopher Klump was a student at Nazareth Area High School.

The high school has a policy which permits students to carry, but not use or display cell phones during school hours. On March 17, 2004 Christopher’s cell phone fell out of his pocket and came to rest on his leg. Upon seeing Christopher’s cell phone, Shawn Kimberly Kocher, a teacher at the high school, enforced the school policy prohibiting use or display of cell phones by confiscating the phone. These events occurred at approximately 10:15 a.m.

Subsequently, Ms. Kocher, along with Assistant Principal Margaret Grube, began making phone calls with Christopher’s cell phone. Ms. Kocher and Ms. Grube called nine other Nazareth Area High School students listed in Christopher’s phone number directory to determine whether they, too, were violating the school’s cell phone policy.

Next, defendants Kocher and Grube accessed Christopher’s text messages and voice mail. Finally, defendants Kocher and Grube held an America Online Instant Messaging conversation with Mr. Klump’s younger brother without identifying themselves as being anyone other than the primary user of the cell phone, Christopher Klump.

On March 22, 2004, Christopher Klump’s parents, plaintiffs Toby Klump and Leigh Klump, met with Ms. Kocher, Ms. Grube, and Assistant Superintendent Diane Dautrich regarding the events of March 17. During that meeting, Ms. Grube told Mr. and Mrs. Klump that while she was in possession of their son’s phone, Christopher received a text message from his girlfriend … [including ] a reference [Ms. Grube interpreted as drug-related] … and prompted her subsequent use of the phone to investigate possible drug use at the school.

Based upon the foregoing facts, plaintiffs [the student and his family] filed a Complaint in the Northampton County Court of Common Pleas. The lawsuit was removed to federal court by defendants on July 29, 2004. Plaintiffs’ First Amended Complaint alleges ten causes of action stemming from the violation of various state and federal protections.

…

Counts VI, VII and VIII assert claims based on rights guaranteed by the United States Constitution and by the Pennsylvania Constitution. Count VI, against defendants Grube and Kocher, alleges violation of plaintiff Christopher Klump’s Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. Count VII alleges that defendants school district, Lesky, Grube and Kocher violated plaintiffs’ similar rights to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures under Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Count VIII, against the school district, avers a violation of plaintiff Christopher Klump’s Fourth Amendment rights, without specifying which particular rights.

…
Search and Seizure by Defendants Grube and Kocher
In Count VI, plaintiffs assert a violation of Christopher Klump’s Fourth Amendment rights by defendants Grube and Kocher. Plaintiffs aver that by accessing Christopher’s phone number directory, voice mail, and text messages, and subsequently using the phone to call individuals listed in the directory, defendants Grube and Kocher violated Christopher’s Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures. In addition, plaintiffs assert that defendants are liable for damages pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1983.25.

Defendants aver that plaintiffs cannot prevail on their Fourth Amendment claim because the search was justified at its inception and was reasonable in scope. … Finally, defendants argue that defendants Grube and Kocher are entitled to qualified immunity from section 1983 claims unless plaintiffs can prove that these defendants violated a clearly-established constitutional right and that a reasonable person in the same position would have known that their conduct violated a constitutional right. …

Plaintiffs dispute defendants’ assertion that the search was justified at its inception, arguing that there were no exigent circumstances justifying defendants’ search. Plaintiffs also argue that their factual averments regarding defendants’ search of plaintiff Christopher Klump’s cell phone adequately detail defendants’ misconduct. Finally, plaintiffs argue that defendants Grube and Kocher knew or should have known that their search was unconstitutional. Plaintiffs aver that knowledge of the improper nature of their actions is evidenced by the fact that Ms. Grube and Ms. Kocher deleted the messages and phone calls they made from the cell phone’s memory card.

Initially, the parties disagree whether the text message from Christopher’s girlfriend was received while defendants were in possession of the phone, as averred by defendants, or was discovered only after defendants had accessed Christopher’s stored text messages, as plaintiffs contend. Therefore, plaintiffs dispute the factual premise by which defendants reach their conclusion that the search was justified at its inception. …[W]e must accept all of the allegations of plaintiffs as true and draw all reasonable inferences in favor of plaintiffs. Regardless of the persuasiveness of defendants’ analysis, we cannot rely on their factual summary, which differs materially from plaintiffs’.

Although students are protected by the Fourth Amendment, the probable cause requirement does not apply to students at school. (New Jersey v. T.L.O, 1985) The Supreme Court has held that a student search must nevertheless satisfy the reasonableness requirement of the Fourth Amendment. In the context of searches conducted by school officials, this means that the search must be justified at its inception and reasonable in scope. (New Jersey v. T.L.O.) To be justified at its inception, there must be “reasonable grounds for believing that the search will turn up evidence that the student has violated or is violating either the law or the rules of the school.” (New Jersey v. T.L.O.)

Here, defendant Kocher was justified in seizing the cell phone, as plaintiff Christopher Klump had violated the school’s policy prohibiting use or display of cell phones during school hours. In calling other students, however, defendants Grube and Kocher were conducting a search to find evidence of other students’ misconduct, which they may not do under the standard articulated above. They had no reason to suspect at the outset that such a search would reveal that Christopher Klump himself was violating another school policy; rather, they hoped to utilize his phone as a tool to catch other students’ violations.

Further, we must accept plaintiffs’ allegation that the school officials did not see the allegedly drug-related text message until after they initiated the search of Christopher’s cell phone. Accordingly, based upon the averments of the Complaint, which we must accept as true at this stage, there was no justification for the school officials to search Christopher’s phone for evidence of drug activity.

Moreover, the law in this area is not as unsettled as defendants suggest. It is clear, based on the case law cited by defendants, that students have a Fourth Amendment right to be free from unreasonable searches and seizures by school officials. (New Jersey v. T.L.O.) Although the meaning of “unreasonable searches and seizures” is different in the school context than elsewhere, it is nonetheless evident that there must be some basis for initiating a search. A reasonable person could not believe otherwise. Accordingly, we deny defendants’ motion to dismiss Count VI against defendants Grube and Kocher on the basis of qualified immunity.

Although paragraphs 100, 101 and 102 of plaintiffs’ First Amended Complaint are not particularly clear, it appears that plaintiffs are asserting in these paragraphs that because the defendant school employees Grube and Kocher are liable for violating Christopher Klump’s rights to be secure from unreasonable searches and seizures under both the United States Constitution (Count VI) and the Pennsylvania Constitution (Count VII), defendant school district is equally liable for those violations. We believe that this is sufficient to state a claim in Count VIII.
Decision Regarding Constitutional Issues
Accordingly, remaining in this lawsuit are the following claims:

(4) in Count VI, the claim of plaintiff Christopher Klump against defendants Grube and Kocher for violation of his Fourth Amendment rights

(5) in Count VII, the claim of plaintiff Christopher Klump against defendants school district, Lesky, Grube and Kocher for violation of his rights under Article I, Section 8 of the Pennsylvania Constitution;

(6) in Count VIII the claim of plaintiff Christopher Klump against the school district for violation of his Fourth Amendment rights. …

t is essential for schools to balance the need for maintaining discipline with respecting the rights and privacy of students, ensuring that policies are in compliance with the law

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

/in /by

Psychopathology studies various abnormal cognitions. In regards to mental illness or distress, psychopathology studies what causes them, their symptoms, mental disorders, categorization, interventions, and strategies that can be used to reduce their prevalence. The causes of mental illness can be behavioral, genetic, emotional, cognitive, interpersonal, developmental, social or cultural.

Biological Factors
Research has shown that the development of psychopathology can be influenced both by genetics and neuroscientific factors. Predisposition to certain mental health disorders can be associated with genetics. Studies show that various psychiatric disorders can be hereditary and can be passed from one family member to the other (McNaughton, 2020). Biological mechanisms associated with psychopathology, such as brain structure and neurotransmitter function, can be influenced by a variation in genes.

Neuroscientific factors such as abnormalities in brain function, brain structure and connectivity can be associated with various mental health disorders. Variations in neural circuitry, neurotransmitter systems and brain regions that are involved in decision making, emotion regulation and cognition are a significant contributor to the development and manifestation of psychopathology.

Psychological Factors

Many mental health disorders can be attributed to maladaptive behavioral patterns and dysfunctional thought. Psychopathology can be influenced by behavioral factors such as substance abuse, avoidance and interpersonal difficulties. Cognitive processes that can be associated with the maintenance of symptoms include distorted thinking patterns, maladaptive coping strategies and negative self-beliefs.

Emotional factors have a significant role in an individual’s mood, their behavior and their perception of things. Dysregulated emotions such as pervasive sadness, heightened anxiety or intense anger can all be associated with mental health disorders. An individual who is unable to regulate their emotions may experience impaired functioning and exacerbated symptoms.

Developmental factors are also commonly associated with mental health disorders. Developmental experiences, especially childhood experiences, play a significant role in vulnerability to psychopathology and psychological functioning during adulthood. When an individual experiences adverse childhood experiences, neglect, trauma or attachment disruptions, they are at a higher risk of developing mental health disorders (Boland, Verdiun, & Ruiz, 2020). Transitioning into new developmental milestones may also be a contributing factor to the development and course of psychopathology.

Social, Cultural, and Interpersonal Factors

The social environment such as family dynamics, socioeconomic status, social support networks and peer relationships can all be of influence to the onset and course of psychopathology. Going through stressful life events such as trauma, loss or adversity can be the cause for or exacerbate mental health disorders (Hyde et al., 2020). On the other hand, having a supportive social environment can help reduce stress and improve mental health.

Cultural factors that may influence psychopathology include cultural norms, beliefs and values. The beliefs, norms or values people have in regards to mental health shape the attitude they have towards mental health disorders and how they respond to mental health problems.

Interpersonal interactions and relationships also have a significant level of influence on psychopathology. A dysfunction in interpersonal dynamics such as invalidation or conflict may cause mental health problems. Supportive and healthy interpersonal relationships, on the other hand, may help improve emotional regulation and mental health.

In conclusion, there are many factors that influence psychopathology are complex and can be biological, psychological or social factors. It is important to holistically understand these factors in order to improve assessment, diagnosis and treatment of mental health disorders.

References

Boland, R., Verdiun, M., & Ruiz, P. (2020). Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Hyde, L. W., Gard, A. M., Tomlinson, R. C., Burt, S. A., Mitchell, C., & Monk, C. S. (2020). An ecological approach to understanding the developing brain: Examples linking poverty, parenting, neighborhoods, and the brain. American Psychologist, 75(9), 1245. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000741Links to an external site.

McNaughton, N. (2020). Personality neuroscience and psychopathology: should we start with biology and look for neural-level factors?. Personality Neuroscience, 3, e4. https://doi.org/10.1017/pen.2020.5Links to an external site.

ReplyReply to Comment
Collapse SubdiscussionJennifer Matis
Jennifer Matis
1:43pmFeb 28 at 1:43pm
Biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal factors influence the development of psychopathology. Genetic factors can influence the development of psychopathology by contributing to an individual’s vulnerability or predisposition to specific mental health conditions. For example, certain gene variations may affect the production or functioning of neurotransmitters, which can impact mood regulation, cognition, and behavior (Boland et al., 2022). These genetic factors, combined with environmental factors, can interact and increase the likelihood of developing psychopathology (Boland et al., 2022). Psychological factors, such as behavioral and cognitive processes, emotional experiences, and developmental influences, can also play a significant role in the development of psychopathology. Thoughts, behaviors, and emotions can interact and precipitate the onset and maintenance of mental health conditions. For instance, negative thinking patterns or maladaptive coping strategies can worsen or exacerbate symptoms (Boland et al., 2022).

Additionally, early life experiences and developmental factors can shape psychological well-being. Social, cultural, and interpersonal factors also significantly impact the development of psychopathology. An individual’s social environment, including family dynamics, peer relationships, and cultural norms, can form a person’s mental health (Cheung & Mak, 2018). Experiencing trauma or living in a stressful social environment can increase the risk of developing psychopathology (Cheung & Mak, 2018). Cultural expectations, stigmas, and beliefs about mental health can also exert influence on how symptoms are perceived and expressed. Interpersonal relationships, such as the quality of support and connection with others, can also affect well-being (Cheung & Mak, 2018). The development of psychopathology is influenced by a combination of genetic, neuroscientific, psychological, and social factors. The genes and brain structures can contribute to predisposition, while psychological factors like thoughts, behaviors, and emotions play a role in symptom development (Garber & Bradshaw, 2020). Social, cultural, and interpersonal factors also shape an individual’s mental health. It is a complex interplay of various factors that integrate into the understanding of psychopathology.

References

Boland, R. & Verduin, M. L. & Ruiz, P. (2022). Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry (12th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.

Cheung, F. M., & Mak, W. W. S. (2018). Sociocultural factors in psychopathology. In J. N. Butcher & J. M. Hooley (Eds.), APA handbook of psychopathology: Psychopathology: Understanding, assessing, and treating adult mental disorders., Vol. 1Links to an external site.Links to an external site.. (pp. 127–147). American Psychological Association. https://go.openathens.net/redirector/waldenu.edu?url=https://doi.org/10.1037/0000064-006Links to an external site.

Garber, J., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2020). Developmental psychopathology and the research domain criteria: Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 49(3), 341–352. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1753205Links to an external site.

ReplyReply to Comment
Collapse SubdiscussionChikamunario Joy Ekeke
Chikamunario Joy Ekeke
2:37pmFeb 28 at 2:37pm
Nurs 6635-week 1 Discussion: Development of psychopathology

Several factors influence the development of individual psychopathology. These factors include biological, which may be in the form of genetics, neuroscience, age, gender, brain trauma and environmental situation of the individual person (Harden et al (2019); Psychological factor that comprises of life stressful events such as loss of loved ones, loss of jobs, divorce etcetera, environmental situations like the safety issues, twin studies, drugs issues etc. and sociocultural factors may be poverty, illiteracy etc. In fact, family history of psychiatric symptoms exacerbates more symptoms in an individual with psychiatric conditions since it may be somewhat inherited.

Biological Influence: Genes have a great impact on the development of psychopathology in an individual. The type of gene, how it grows from fetal formation to adulthood and environment/people the gene grows matters a lot on the psychopathology of an individual. In fact, mental health change is dependent upon the genes, environment, and exposure of an individual person. Trauma to any part of the brain will result to one type of psychiatric disorder or another, since human brain comprises of neuronal functions such as attention, memories, visual functions, language/speech, motor activities etc. Research has shown that traumatic brain injury may result in psychiatric disorders like anxiety, depression, aggression, and heightened effect of delinquencies. (Connolly & McConnolly, 2019). Any imbalance to the chemical neurotransmitter seen in the central nervous system may result in psychopathological issues. For instance, Serotonin imbalance usually leads to depression, dopamine imbalance also leads to schizoaffective disorders (schizophrenia). Issues on the amygdala and Cingulate gyrus that are responsible for fear and anxiety could increase these symptoms (Jackson & Milberg, 2018). Body homeostasis is regulated by the thalamus and if there is any alteration to this area or even to hippocampus, orbitofrontal etcetera, all may lead to emotional disturbances like anxiety disorders, depression, PTSD or even bipolar disorders. According to CDC, (2011), gene studies (as in twin studies) revealed that gene expression may be a factor in the inheritable psychiatric conditions coupled with the environmental influences. All these can lead to the experiences of low childhood IQ, childhood self-control disability , childhood maltreatment, adolescent victimization and increased inflammation conditions.

Psychological Influences: several psychological issues influence the mental health of an individual. Rejection, divorce, loss of loved ones, unemployment, low self-esteem, maladaptive coping (like avoidance), body image issues, poor lifestyle issues like eating disorders, abuse of drugs, negative thinking, poor conflict resolution, pessimism, perfectionism etcetera, all contribute to development of psychopathological conditions (Caspi et al, 2024). The life experiences of humans such as education, healthcare management, affluence or poverty nature usually determine or influence the expression of genes, which may severely alter or change the distribution of a specific synapse and its connections and resulting in behavioral changes (Stahl, 2013). The dynamic human nature affects individuals at different stages of their lives. The changes may be through epigenesis, neurobiological, societal, or cultural levels. These interactions or experiences acquired (may be via family, peers, school, policies, mass media, culture, etcetera.) are bound to change overtime, leaving the individual to also change in behavior to adapt to the system (Master & Kalstabakken, 2018). This may result in any of the psychiatric conditions like depression, anxiety or even schizophrenia, if not catch early and institute appropriate management. Food shortage, poor housing (overcrowding, poor heating condition), and poor transportation services can subject individuals to different types of psychiatric conditions like depression, anxiety, suicide ideation etcetera.

Sociocultural and interpersonal Influence: Poor socioeconomic status/conditions are highly attributed to different poor mental health. Research has shown that there is a high incidence of mental health issues amongst low-income individuals with poor education, unemployment, including mental health disparities seen in different races, ethnicities as well as sexual and gender orientation (Cheug & Mark, 2018). For instance, low-income workers like the migrants etc suffer more from mental health disorders due to fear of deportation, emotional constraints, and domineering management. Culture influences greatly how people interact with each other, feel, behave, and think about the society they found themselves in. Some culture as in race/ethnicity, income status, gender and sexual orientation including language barrier, could lead people to suffer mental health issues like depression, anxiety, self-injurious behavior, and suicide attempts. All these discriminations and isolation could prevent individuals from normal interactions and deprive them of acquiring knowledge and information that can help them live quality healthy lives (Alegria et al., 2018). Interpersonal relationship could be healthy or not healthy in that stigmas are laid on some individuals or population for instance, in some African countries, mental illness is viewed as a taboo that families are being discriminated if anyone in that family suffers schizophrenia or any other mental illness, they will be isolated from the society, and nobody would like to marry from the family or even befriend them. Hence, such families are in a dilemma of speaking out or coming out to seek for help or get treatment for their mental illnesses.

References

Alegría, M., NeMoyer, A., Falgàs Bagué, I., Wang, Y., Alvarez, K. (2018). Social Determinants of Mental Health: Where We Are and Where We Need to Go. Curr Psychiatry Rep.. doi: 10.1007/s11920 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6181118/

Casp, I. A., Houts, R. M., Fisher, H. L., Danese, A., Moffitt, T. E. (2024).The general factor of psychopathology (p): Choosing among competing models and interpreting p. Clin Psychol Sci. doi: 10.1177/21677026221147872
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10794018/Links to an external site.

Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011). Mental health awareness. https://www.cdc.gov/genomics/resources/diseases/mental.htmLinks to an external site.

Cheung, F. M., & Mak, W. W. S. (2018). Sociocultural factors in psychopathology APA handbook of psychopathology: Psychopathology: Understanding, assessing, and treating adult mental disorders. American Psychological Association.

https://doi-org.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1037/0000

Connolly, E.J., McCormick, B. F. (2018). Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Psychopathology in Adolescence: Evidence from the project on human development in Chicago neighborhoods. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(1), 79-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.12.023Links to an external site.

Links to an external site.Harden, K. P., Engelhardt, L. E., Mann, F. D., Patterson, M. W., Grotzinger, A. D., Savicki, S. L., Thibodeaux, M. L., Freis, S. M., Tackett, J. L., Church, J. A., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020). Genetic associations between executive functions and a general factor of psychopathology.
Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry

Jackson, C .E., & Milberg, W. P. (2018). Examination of neurological and neuropsychological features in psychopathology. Psychopathology: Understanding, Assessing and Treating adult mental disorder. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/Links to an external site.

Masten, A. S., & Kalstabakken, A. W. (2018). Developmental perspectives on psychopathology in children and adolescents. APA handbook of psychopathology: Child and adolescent psychopathology. American. Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000065-002

ReplyReply to Comment
Collapse SubdiscussionMichelle J Vernon
Michelle J Vernon
3:45pmFeb 28 at 3:45pm
Explain the biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal factors that influence the development of psychopathology

Psychopathology is the scientific study of mental disorders, and the word refers to the characteristics of and the development of these disorders as well. Numerous factors influence the development of psychopathology such as biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal ones. Typically, mental disorders are the result of the interplay of these various factors. The causes are multidimensional and so, our approach to understanding and treating them must be multidimensional also.

Biological Factors:

Some of the biological factors that can contribute to the development of psychopathology are genetics, and brain development, structure, and function, which includes neurotransmitters and hormones, among other things (Smoller, Andreassen, Edenberg, Faraone, Glatt, & Kendler, 2019). Genetics can impact all these and can increase the likelihood of developing most mental disorders, and some developmental, cognitive, and neurological disorders that have mood and behavior components (Andreassen, et. al., 2019). Genetics are responsible for heritable traits like temperament that affect how individuals perceive and respond to their environment and this in turn can influence the development and treatment of psychopathology (Andreassen, et. al., 2019). Genetics also influence how our bodies respond to psychopharmacological treatments for mental disorders, and whether they are successful or not. Brain development (including neurotransmitter and hormone systems), structure, and function can be influenced by the prenatal health, environment, and behavior of our mothers. This in turn influences our risks of developing psychopathology (Andreassen, et. al., 2019). Sometimes, a number of these things occur together.

Psychological Factors:

Psychological factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology include cognitive processes, personality, emotional and behavioral traits, coping mechanisms, and developmental conditions that can influence all these things (Isaksson, Johan, Zetterqvist, Vendela, Ramklint, & Mia, 2021). Biology can influence cognition, personality, emotions, and behavior to an extent, but environment and life experiences play a significant role in the development and treatment of psychopathology (Isaksson, et. al., 2021). Some risk factors may be avoidable, but many are situational occurrences that are outside of our control. Trauma and stress, whether acute or chronic, can impact how our brains develop and function, how we interpret and respond to things, and whether we recover and thrive (Isaksson, et. al., 2021). Our environment and experiences can be positive and supportive of healthy psychological development, or they can result in a negative feedback loop that leads to and reinforces unhealthy psychopathology.

Social Factors:

Social factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology include race, gender, sexual preference, culture, discrimination, socioeconomic status, access to resources, living and/or workplace conditions, safety, social support, and connections with friends, family, and the community (Cheung, & Mak, 2018). When these factors result in negative, stressful, deficient, unhealthy conditions, they can give rise to mental health disorders and physical health disorders. Conversely, when these factors are positive and supportive, they can protect against mental and physical illness. They can also contribute to better treatment outcomes for/recovery from these illnesses.

Cultural Factors:

Cultural factors that may influence psychopathology include cultural norms, beliefs, values, customs, traditions, practices, expectations, attitudes, and stigma around mental health (Cheung, & Mak, 2018). These factors can result in differences in the perception of what constitutes a mental disorder and how someone is diagnosed, treated, and supported across different cultures (Cheung, & Mak, 2018). These can be protective factors for people with strong cultural ties or they can be risk factors that exacerbate psychopathology and impede treatment and recovery, especially if someone conflicts with their predominant culture.

Interpersonal Factors:

Interpersonal factors influencing psychopathology include relationships, social and community connections and support, communication, and conflict resolution skills (Cheung, & Mak, 2018). Again, when there are deficits in these areas, they can lead to the development of psychopathology, and when they are positive traits/factors, they can protect against it. Hopefully, it is apparent that there is considerable overlap and influence between all of these – biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal factors.

Reference:

Cheung, F. M., & Mak, W. W. S. (2018). Sociocultural factors in psychology. In J. N. Butcher

& J. M. Hooley (Eds.), APA handbook of psychopathology: Psychopathology:

Understanding, assessing, and treating adult mental disorders., Vol 1. (pp. 127-147).

American Psychological Association. https://doi-Links to an external site.

org.ezp.waldenlibrary.org/10.1037/0000064-006

Isaksson, Johan, Zetterqvist, Vendela, Ramklint, & Mia. (2021). Psychological and social

risk factors associated with development of psychopathology, controlling for biological

influence. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 34(6):p 600-607. https://doi.org/

10.1097/YCO.0000000000000744

Smoller, J. W., Andreassen, O. A., Edenberg, H. J., Faraone, S. V., Glatt, S. J., & Kendler, K.

(2019). Psychiatric genetics and the structure of psychopathology.Molecular
psychiatry, 24(3), 409–420. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-017-0010-4

ReplyReply to Comment
Collapse SubdiscussionOluwatoyin Omolade Omosebi
Oluwatoyin Omolade Omosebi
4:56pmFeb 28 at 4:56pm
Explain the biological (genetic and neuroscientific), psychological (behavioral and cognitive processes, emotional, developmental), and social, cultural, and interpersonal factors that influence the development of psychopathology.

Introduction

The term psychopathology is derived from two Greek words: ‘psyche’ meaning’ soul’ and ‘pathos’ meaning’ suffering’. Currently, the term ‘psychopathology’ refers to the genesis, progression, and symptoms of mental diseases. Traditionally, people suffering from mental diseases have been treated by the psychiatric profession, which uses the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2002) or ICD-10 (WHO, 1992) to identify mental illnesses. As a result, psychiatrists use the word ‘psychopathology’ more frequently than other professionals. Psychiatrists are medical professionals who specialise in mental health and can treat patients with medicine or any of the psychotherapy models they have received training in.

Schultze, Schmidt, and Theodoridou (2018) suggest a different approach. Psychopathology may be defined as the scientific investigation of aberrant mental states that, for more than a century, has offered a Gestalt for psychiatric diseases and led both therapeutic and scientific advances in modern psychology. A complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors has an impact on psychopathology, or the expression of mental diseases. Here is an overview of each.

Biological Factors:
Genetic: Understanding the genetics of mental diseases reveals a complicated interaction between genes, environment, and epigenetics. A combination of genetic variations is what causes mental illnesses like schizophrenia and depression. Genetic predispositions interact with environmental variables, such as stress and trauma, to influence the onset and severity of mental diseases. Epigenetic processes control gene expression in response to environmental inputs. Gene-environment correlations show how genetic predispositions impact behaviors and environmental exposures. Advances in genomics provide insights into unique gene expression patterns linked to mental diseases, paving the possibility for individualised therapies. In conclusion, the genetic story of psychopathology highlights the complex link between genes and environment, providing promise for more focused therapies based on individual genetic profiles.

Neuroscientific: According to Oktar (2006). Neuroscience studies the nervous system, particularly the biological foundation of consciousness, perception, memory, and learning. Neuroscience connects our observations of cognitive behaviour to the physical mechanisms that underpin such behavior. The nervous system may be considered a lineage structure that self-organizes and alters throughout time. Modern imaging techniques like MRI and PET have helped neuroscientific research demonstrate anatomical and functional abnormalities in the brains of people with mental illnesses. The prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus frequently display altered structure and function, associated with symptoms including anxiety, hallucinations, and impulsivity. Disruptions in functional connectivity within brain networks lead to psychiatric symptoms. This neuroscientific approach expands our understanding of mental disease and holds promise for developing focused therapies and diagnostic instruments.

Psychological Factors:
Behavioural Processes: Behavioural theories explain how learned actions contribute to the emergence and persistence of psychopathology. Individuals develop maladaptive coping methods for suffering through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. The effects of these activities reinforce them, resulting in their long-term persistence. Understanding these behavioral processes is critical for developing successful interventions like behavioural therapies, which attempt to change maladaptive habits and promote healthy coping mechanisms.

Cognitive Processes: Cognitive theories claim that skewed thought processes contribute to the persistence of mental diseases. Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) addresses maladaptive cognitions and assists individuals in developing more adaptive ways of thinking and functioning, however, according to Postle (2006). A standard model resulting from the fusion of psychological theory and neuroscience evidence has been the main inspiration for cognitive neuroscience research on working memory.

Emotional Processes: Emotional processes significantly impact people’s perceptions and responses to their surroundings. Hence, they play an essential part in mental health. Emotional dysregulation, which is frequent in many mental diseases, refers to difficulty in successfully controlling and expressing emotions. Emotion-focused treatments improve emotional awareness and regulatory abilities by teaching how to constructively detect and interact with emotions. Tailoring therapeutic procedures to address emotional vulnerabilities is critical for fostering long-term healing and resilience. Individuals who integrate emotional well-being into treatment can build adaptive coping strategies and reduce the influence of mental diseases on their overall well-being.

Developmental Factors: Attachment bonds, parenting styles, and childhood trauma are all developmental elements that have a significant impact on people’s mental health outcomes. Early experiences shape fundamental beliefs, coping mechanisms, and susceptibility to psychopathology. Secure bonds and authoritative parenting foster resilience, but insecure attachments and adverse childhood experiences raise the likelihood of mental health issues. Recognising and responding to developmental effects in treatments is critical for improving emotional well-being and resilience across the lifespan. Top of Form

Social, Cultural, and Interpersonal Factors
Social Factors: Social support functions as a stress buffer and boosts resilience, whereas social isolation, bullying, and socioeconomic inequities raise the chance of developing psychopathology. Social solid relationships offer emotional, instrumental, and informational support, promoting a sense of belonging and security. In contrast, a lack of social support and negative social experiences can cause feelings of loneliness, alienation, and separation, increasing mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety. Socioeconomic inequities exacerbate discrepancies in mental health outcomes. Addressing socioeconomic determinants of mental health is critical to fostering well-being and creating inclusive societies.

Cultural Factors: Cultural influences have a significant impact on how people perceive mental illness, impacting their help-seeking habits, treatment preferences, and stigma. Beliefs regarding mental health differ among cultures, influencing how symptoms are conveyed and perceived. Cultural competency in mental health care is critical, including the awareness of varied beliefs and partnership with traditional healers. Accepting cultural variety results in more inclusive and effective mental health care for all people.

Interpersonal Factors: Interpersonal variables tremendously influence mental health, altering people’s sense of self and emotional well-being. Dysfunctional family dynamics, conflictual relationships, and abusive events influence psychopathology. Family therapy and couples therapy are examples of therapeutic methods that target relationship concerns, promoting better communication and more significant connections. Recognising the centrality of interpersonal interactions in mental health emphasizes the need for comprehensive treatment options.

Finally, a thorough knowledge of the biological, psychological, and social factors of psychopathology is required for mental health promotion and successful therapeutic approaches. Mental health practitioners may develop resilience, minimize stigma, and enhance the overall quality of life for those suffering from mental illnesses by treating these issues holistically. Furthermore, including varied viewpoints and culturally sensitive techniques ensures that mental health care is accessible and inclusive to all people, regardless of background or circumstance.

Reference

APA (2002) DSM-IV-TR® Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition, revised) (Vancouver, American Psychiatric Association).

Oktar, N. (2006). Theory of neuroscience. Journal of Neurological Sciences, 23(3), 155-158.

Postle, B. R. (2006). Working memory as an emergent property of the mind and brain. Neuroscience, 139(1), 23-38.

Schultze-Lutter, F., Schmidt, S. J., & Theodoridou, A. (2018). Psychopathology—a precision tool in need of re-sharpening. Frontiers in psychiatry, 9, 446.

WHO (1992) ICD-10: The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical Descriiptions and Diagnostic Guidelines (Copenhagen, World Health Organization).

Collapse SubdiscussionYahyli Gonzalez Munoz
Yahyli Gonzalez Munoz
5:02pmFeb 28 at 5:02pm
Factors that Influence the Development of Psychopathology

Psychopathology is caused by myriad interacting factors, which require contributions from the neural sciences, genetics, psychology, and social-cultural sciences to accurately express, classify, diagnose, and manage these conditions. Nurse practitioners working in the mental health field should take a multidimensional, integrative approach and incorporate theoretical perspectives to understand biological, psychological, social, cultural, and interpersonal factors that influence the development of psychopathology. According to Mollon et al. (2021), biological factors that influence the development of psychopathology include neurobiological processes like brain structure, neural circuitry, neurotransmitter function, and genetic factors, which explain why conditions like bipolar disorders and schizophrenia run in families.

Psychological factors that influence the development of psychopathology include behavioral and cognitive processes, emotional factors, and developmental factors. As noted by Isaksson et al. (2021), cognitive distortions and maladaptive behavioral patterns explain why people present with avoidance behaviors and negative symptoms in psychiatric conditions like anxiety and depressive disorders. Isaksson et al. (2021) also noted that psychiatric patients often struggle with managing and expressing their emotions because mental health disorders cause emotional dysregulation. Psychopathologies are likely to develop in later life for children who experienced traumatic events or those who had delayed developmental milestones.

Social factors influencing the development of psychopathology include social stresses, limited access to resources, and lack of social support, which increase the risk of developing mental health issues (McNaughton, 2020). Cultural factors influencing the development of psychopathology include cultural values, norms, and beliefs, which can contribute to stigma or help-seeking behaviors (Isaksson et al., 2021). Interpersonal factors that influence the development of psychopathology include dysfunctional interpersonal patterns, peer influence, and lack of social support systems.

References

Isaksson, J., Zetterqvist, V., & Ramklint, M. (2021). Psychological and social risk factors associated with the development of psychopathology, controlling for biological influence. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 34(6), 600-607. https://doi.org/10.1097/YCO.0000000000000744Links to an external site.

McNaughton, N. (2020). Personality neuroscience and psychopathology: Should we start with biology and look for neural-level factors? Personality Neuroscience, 3, e4. https://doi.org/10.1017/pen.2020.5Links to an external site.

Mollon, J., Knowles, E. E., Mathias, S. R., Rodrigue, A., Moore, T. M., Calkins, M. E., & Glahn, D. C. (2021). Genetic influences on externalizing psychopathology overlap with cognitive functioning and show developmental variation. European Psychiatry, 64(1), e29. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.21Links to an external site.

ReplyReply to Comment
Collapse SubdiscussionMichelle Renee Thompson
Michelle Renee Thompson
5:52pmFeb 28 at 5:52pm
Discussion Post /6635C
​Biological factors that influence the development of Psychopathology are genetics, brain structures, the endocrine system, and neurotransmitters all play a role in the development of mental disorders (Casio, 2023).
Psychological factors that influence the development of psychopathology are a family history of mental illness, socioeconomic deprivation, cognitive and self-regulation difficulties that are present early in life and negative experiences in childhood and in adolescence and inflammation are all factors that influence the development of psychopathology (West, 2021).

Exposure to poverty and violence are contributing factors that influence the development of psychopathology. Physical and Psychosocial stressors are strong determinants. Lack of coping skills, lack of self-concept and motivational systems. Lack of awareness and motivation to seek help for psychological abnormalities or the ability to recognize that there is a problem can also manifest into the development of untreated psychopathologies(Marsella, 2021).

​

References
Caspi, A., & Houts, R. M. (2023). Clinical Psychological Science, 12(1). Retrieved February 28, 2024, fromLinks to an external site.

Marsella, A. J. (2021). Culture and psychopathology: foundations, issues, directions. Psychology today. Retrieved February 28, 2024, fromLinks to an external site.

West, R. (2021). Biological elements of psychopathology. Abnormal Psychology. Retrieved February 28, 2024, fromLinks to an external site.

ReplyReply to Comment
Collapse SubdiscussionHope Hodari Nyina-Muntu
Hope Hodari Nyina-Muntu
6:17pmFeb 28 at 6:17pm
Main Discussion

Factors that Influence the Development of Psychopathology

The field of psychopathology, which delves into the study of abnormal psychological conditions, unveils a captivating interplay of biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors that intricately shape the emergence and evolution of mental disorders. A comprehensive understanding of these dimensions is essential for unraveling the complexities of mental disorders and for tailoring effective prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies. This discussion post embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the multifaceted dimensions within this realm on the complex landscape of psychopathology.

Biological Factors

The origins of psychopathology can be traced to the delicate intermingling of genetic predisposition and neuroscientific intricacies. Genetic factors lay the cornerstone for an individual’s vulnerability to mental disorders, with specific genetic variations and mutations associated with conditions such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder (Montag & Panksepp, 2020). This genetic backdrop converges with the intricate dance of neuroscientific mechanisms. Imbalances in neurotransmitters, disruptions in crucial brain regions, and deviations in neural circuitry collectively contribute to the genesis of mental disorders. For example, serotonin imbalances underpin the roots of depression, while dopamine dysregulation is central to the expression of conditions like schizophrenia (Jackson & Milberg, 2018). Thus, biological factors form the foundational framework upon which the tapestry of psychopathological conditions unfolds.

Psychological Factors

The narrative of psychopathological development finds its protagonists in an array of intricate psychological processes. Behaviors, both learned and conditioned, occupy a significant role in this spectrum. Maladaptive behaviors, reinforced by consequential outcomes, set in motion self-perpetuating cycles within various mental disorders (Boland et al., 2022).Yet, it is the realm of cognitive processes that imparts depth to this narrative. Distorted thought patterns and cognitive biases interlock to weave the fabric of conditions like anxiety and depression. These cognitive distortions not only tint self-perception but also intricately shape the lens through which the world is perceived (Boland et al., 2022). Furthermore, emotional processes play a pivotal role. Challenges in emotional regulation and heightened emotional reactivity enhance susceptibility to disorders like borderline personality disorder and substance abuse (Speranza et al., 2023). Developmental processes, unfolding against the backdrop of critical life stages, further contribute to the trajectory. Experiences such as trauma, attachment styles, and environmental influences during formative years establish the framework for future psychopathological tendencies (Speranza et al., 2023).

Social, Cultural, and Interpersonal Factors

The intricate narrative of psychopathological development remains incomplete without considering the broader socio-cultural and interpersonal dimensions. Social factors, encompassing socioeconomic status, resource access, and social support networks, emerge as pivotal influencers (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2018). Individuals navigating disadvantaged backgrounds or contending with systemic discrimination face elevated risks of developing mental disorders. The vibrant tapestry of cultural factors intricately influences the presentation and interpretation of psychopathology. According to Fonagy et al., (2022), cultural norms, values, and expectations interplay with symptoms, resulting in diverse expressions of disorders across varied cultural contexts. Moreover, the interpersonal realm introduces a profound layer, as relationships and social interactions significantly impact mental well-being (Masten & Kalstabakken, 2018). Dysfunctional family dynamics, deficiencies in interpersonal skills, and the absence of robust social networks can all contribute to the emergence and perpetuation of mental disorders.

Conclusion

The intricate exploration of psychopathological development unveils a symphony of genetic predisposition, neuroscientific mechanisms, intricate psychological processes, and the rich socio-cultural and interpersonal tapestry. The biopsychosocial model, offering a panoramic view, provides a framework to understand the multifaceted dynamics underpinning mental disorders. Armed with this comprehensive perspective, researchers and clinicians stand poised to craft nuanced strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment, fostering not only the mitigation of psychopathology but also the cultivation of profound mental well-being within individuals and societies alike. As this intricate narrative continues to be unwound, a holistic approach will undoubtedly pave the way for a more insightful understanding of psychopathological development.

References

Boland, R. & Verduin, M. L. & Ruiz, P. (2022). Kaplan & Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry (12th ed.). Wolters Kluwer

Fonagy, P., Campbell, C., Constantinou, M., Higgitt, A., Allison, E., & Luyten, P. (2022). Culture and psychopathology: An attempt at reconsidering the role of social learning. Development and Psychopathology, 34(4), 1205-1220. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421000092Links to an external site.

Jackson, C. E., & Milberg, W. P. (2018). Examination of neurological and neuropsychological features in psychopathology. American Psychological Association. 65–90. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000064-004Links to an external site.

Masten, A. S., & Kalstabakken, A. W. (2018). Developmental perspectives on psychopathology in children and adolescents. American Psychological Association. 15–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000065-002Links to an external site.

Montag, C., & Panksepp, J. (2020). Personality neuroscience: Why it is of importance to consider primary emotional systems!. Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences, 3830-3840. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_1338

Speranza, A. M., Liotti, M., Spoletini, I., & Fortunato, A. (2023). Heterotypic and homotypic continuity in psychopathology: A narrative review. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1194249. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1194249Links to an external site.

ReplyReply to Comment
Collapse SubdiscussionGetz Bolivard
Getz Bolivard
6:32pmFeb 28 at 6:32pm
Biological Factors

Biological contributors to mental disorders include genetics, hormones, and brain chemistry. An estimated 40 to 70 percent of cognitive abilities, emotional responses, and personality traits are linked to genetic factors (Huda, 2021). Mental disorders are often due to dysregulation of dopamine, serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and norepinephrine (Iasiello et al., 2020). Genetics plays a critical role in creating proteins vital for neurotransmission and neuronal signaling in the brain. Disruptions in gene formation can interfere with these neural pathways and brain functionality. Biological influencers on psychopathology span psychological issues’ physical, chemical, genetic, or neurological aspects (Najib, 2023). These include prenatal exposure to harmful substances, inadequate nutrition, maternal psychological conditions, infections, brain anomalies, and stress during pregnancy. These factors highlight the role of genetics and brain chemistry in influencing behavior, with chemical imbalances playing a significant role (Huda, 2021).

Psychological Factors

Psychological contributors to psychopathology encompass the evolution of thoughts, emotions, and actions (Huda, 2021). Experiences of stress, significant psychological distress, or abuse, especially in childhood, can influence mental health issues later. For some, limited social connections and feelings of loneliness or isolation can also impact mental well-being (Huda, 2021).

Social, Cultural, and Interpersonal Factors

Mental health is significantly shaped by cultural perceptions and societal attitudes towards cultural norms (Huda, 2021). Healthcare providers must consider an individual’s cultural context, as behaviors seen as usual in one culture may not be in another, with normality being a culturally specific concept. Cultural factors necessitate mental health professionals to develop culturally sensitive and ethical assessments, diagnoses, and treatment plans (Huda, 2021). Various social or cultural stressors, like family dysfunction, loss, transitions in life, or societal expectations, can precipitate mental health issues in those already vulnerable (Huda, 2021; Najib, 2023).

References

Huda A. S. (2021). The medical model and its application in mental health. International Review of Psychiatry, 33(5), 463–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2020.1845125

Iasiello, M., & Van Agteren, J. (2020). Mental health and/or mental illness: A scoping review of the evidence and implications of the dual-continua model of mental health. Evidence Base, 3(1), 1-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.21307/eb-2020-001

Najib, A. (2023). Etiology of mental disorders & resistance: What is a mental disorder heavily influenced by indigenous peoples, culture, community psychological values from the perspective of Al-Qur’an interpretation? Journal for ReAttach Therapy and Developmental Diversities, 6(8s), pp. 28-39. https://jrtdd.com/index.php/journal/article/view/855

ReplyReply to Comment
Collapse SubdiscussionEbony Sudduth
Ebony Sudduth (She/Her)
7:48pmFeb 28 at 7:48pm
Factors that Influence the Development of Psychopathology

The American Psychological Association (2023) defines psychopathology as a discipline that encompasses theories and guidelines that are fundamental to the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of mental health disorders. It is important for Psychiatric Mental Health Nurse Practitioners to understand psychopathology because it is the underpinning for treatment planning and clinical practice guidelines that are diagnosis specific (Haywood et al., 2022). Several factors have been and continue to be influential in the field of psychopathology.

Biological Factors

Some examples of biological factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology include genetics, body systems that regulate hormone production (endocrine system), structures within the brain such as the prefrontal cortex and chemical messengers. Genetic epidemiology informs psychopathology by allowing researchers to gain insight into how genetic coding and DNA structures can predispose individuals to certain mental health illnesses (Smoller et al., 2018). Noted differences in clinical manifestations of mental illness can be observed in men versus women which may be attributed to sex hormones. Kundakovic and Rocks (2022) note that variations hormone levels in women can alter brain structures, and which can contribute to increased risks for certain psychiatric disorders among females. This also speaks to how alterations in neural pathways and vascularization can facilitate psychiatric conditions such as in vascular dementia. Alterations in chemical messengers commonly known as neurotransmitters are said to be causative factors of conditions such as depression and schizophrenia and are important players in the mechanism of actions of several psychotropic medications (Stahl, 2021).

Psychological Factors

Psychological trauma is an influencing factor in the field of psychopathology. Experiences such as emotional, sexual, or physical abuse can lead to PTSD, depression, and anxiety for some individuals. Childhood neglect and abuse can also lead to poor coping skills and emotional control during adulthood. Research has shown that alterations in neuronal pathways responsible for emotional regulation and cognitive functioning have been linked to childhood abuse/neglect (Jenness et al., 2020).

Social, Cultural, & Interpersonal Factors

Social, cultural, and interpersonal relationships play an integral role in the mental health and well being of individuals. According to Sederer (2016) a large proportion of the social determinants of health are compromised by one’s physical and social environment which impacts not only a person’s physical well-being, but also their mental health as well. Extreme deviations from societal, and cultural norms can in some instances indicate there is an underlying mental illness. For example, the DSM-5-TR (American Psychiatric Association, 2022) notes that flights of ideas and excessive involvement in high-risk activities are included in the diagnostic criteria for a manic episode of a person with Bipolar I. If one were to observe a person during an active manic episode their behavior would be socially inappropriate. Also, social drug and alcohol use is an area that informs psychopathology. National Institute on Drug Abuse (2018) reports that 37.9% of the 20.3 million adults with a substance use disorder also has mental illness.

How Theoretical Perspectives on Psychopathology Impact PMHNP Clinical Practice

Theoretical perspectives on psychopathology impact the PMHNP’s clinical practice because these theories are the foundation on which clinical practice guidelines and standards of care are formed. PMHNP’s must understand these principles and how they inform their clinical practice to adequately care for the patients they serve. Sanati (2020) states that theories of psychopathology are crucial to the practice of psychiatry specifically during clinical practice.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Bipolar and Related Disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787.x03_bipolar_and_related_disorders

American Psychological Association. (2023). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. https://dictionary.apa.org/psychopathologyLinks to an external site.

Haywood, D., Baughman, F. D., Mullan, B. A., & Heslop, K. R. (2022). What Accounts for the Factors of Psychopathology? An Investigation of the Neurocognitive Correlates of Internalising, Externalising, and the p-Factor. Brain Sciences, 12(4), 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12040421Links to an external site.

Jenness, J. L., Peverill, M., Miller, A. B., Heleniak, C., Robertson, M. M., Sambrook, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2020). Alterations in neural circuits underlying emotion regulation following child maltreatment: a mechanism underlying trauma-related psychopathology. Psychological Medicine, 51(11), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291720000641

Kundakovic, M., & Rocks, D. (2022). Sex hormone fluctuation and increased female risk for depression and anxiety disorders: From clinical evidence to molecular mechanisms. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 66, 101010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2022.101010Links to an external site.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2018, August 15). Comorbidity: Substance Use and Other Mental Disorders. National Institute on Drug Abuse. https://nida.nih.gov/research-topics/comorbidity/comorbidity-substance-use-other-mental-disorders-infographicLinks to an external site.

Sanati, A. (2020). An exploration of psychopathology for clinical practice. BJPsych Advances, 26(5), 296–298. https://doi.org/10.1192/bja.2020.37

Sederer, L. I. (2016). The Social Determinants of Mental Health. Psychiatric Services, 67(2), 234–235. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201500232Links to an external site.

Smoller, J. W., Andreassen, O. A., Edenberg, H. J., Faraone, S. V., Glatt, S. J., & Kendler, K. S. (2018). Psychiatric genetics and the structure of psychopathology. Molecular Psychiatry, 24(3), 409–420. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-017-0010-4Links to an external site.

Stahl, S. M. (2021). Stahl’s essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications. (5th ed.). Cambridge Univ Press.

ReplyReply to Comment
Collapse SubdiscussionSamantha Oswald
Samantha Oswald
7:59pmFeb 28 at 7:59pm
Discussion Post 1

Initial post

The development of psychopathology, which refers to the manifestation of psychological disorders or mental illnesses, is influenced by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. Understanding these factors is crucial for comprehending the etiology and progression of various mental health conditions.

Biological factors:

Genetic predispositions significantly influence the development of psychopathology. Conditions like schizophrenia and bipolar illness have a significant genetic influence. Genetics usually combine with environmental circumstances, and certain genes may heighten vulnerability rather than directly leading to illnesses (Gartstein, et al., 2018)
Neuroscientific elements like brain anatomy, function, and neurotransmitter activity play a role in psychopathology. Structural anomalies, disturbances in neurochemical levels such as serotonin and dopamine, and disrupted neural pathways can all play a role in the development of different mental health disorders. Abnormalities in the amygdala and prefrontal cortex are linked to anxiety disorders and depression.

Psychological factors:

Behavioral processes: Maladaptive behaviors can play a role in the creation and persistence of mental disorders. Reinforcement, conditioning, and learnt responses impact behaviors related to mental health disorders.
Psychological problems sometimes stem from dysfunctional thought patterns and cognitive biases. Cognitive theories suggest that skewed thinking patterns, such as catastrophizing or black-and-white thinking, play a role in diseases such as depression, anxiety, and eating disorders.
Emotional processes are vital in psychopathology. Individuals with mood disorders, borderline personality disorder, and other problems often exhibit emotional dysregulation, characterized by heightened reactivity and trouble controlling emotions.
Developmental processes can be influenced by early experiences like attachment patterns, childhood trauma, and environmental stressors, which can impact the development of psychopathology (Zwicker, A. et. al, 2020). Adverse childhood experiences are associated with a higher likelihood of developing mental health problems in the future.

Social factors such as socioeconomic position, social support networks, and society norms impact mental health outcomes. Higher rates of psychopathology are linked to poverty, discrimination, and social isolation.
Cultural influences such as attitudes, values, and customs impact how mental health symptoms are expressed and understood. Some illnesses may be more common or present differently in other cultures.
Interpersonal elements, such as relationships and interpersonal dynamics, influence mental health. Interactions within the family, relationships with peers, and attachment styles might influence the emergence or worsening of mental diseases, especially in cases such as personality disorders (Loughnan, et al., 2022).

Gartstein, M. A., & Skinner, M. K. (2018). Prenatal influences on temperament development: The role of environmental epigenetics. Development and Psychopathology, 30(4), 1269–1303. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417001730Links to an external site.

Loughnan, R. J., Palmer, C. E., Makowski, C., Thompson, W. K., Barch, D. M., Jernigan, T. L., Dale, A. M., & Fan, C. C. (2022). Unique prediction of developmental psychopathology from genetic and familial risk. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 63(12), 1631–1643. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13649Links to an external site.

Zwicker, A., MacKenzie, L. E., Drobinin, V., Bagher, A. M., Howes Vallis, E., Propper, L., Bagnell, A., Abidi, S., Pavlova, B., Alda, M., Denovan-Wright, E. M., & Uher, R. (2020). Neurodevelopmental and genetic determinants of exposure to adversity among youth at risk for mental illness. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 61(5), 536–544. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13159Links to an external site.