Introduction

According to Zoukis (2016), a longitudinal study from The U.S. Sentencing Commission (USSC), notes that nearly half of their sample of some 25,000 federal offenders released in 2005 from prison or put on probation were re-arrested over the course of the next 8 years. The USSC also points out that it was a quick time frame, around 21 months post societal re-entry, when a majority of the re-arrests occurred. Many of the individuals re-arrested (80% which were males) were involved with offenses of assault, property theft, and drug trafficking. Zoukis (2016) also expresses, in terms of the state prison population, slightly over 75% of former prisoners were rearrested within the period of five years post-release reported by the National Institute of Justice. Recidivism is a major issue in terms of the U.S. criminal justice system, individuals apart of the prison institution, and the cycle of mass incarceration.  It calls for a look at the social aspects, relationships, and resources that may be available to offenders in association with desistance from future violations and crimes. This paper explores the relationship between religion or spirituality and its correlation to a more successful transition into mainstream society for former inmates, in aiding to their desistance from criminal deviance (e.g. drug use). I argue religion or spirituality can bring about resources that opens up opportunities for offenders to better desist from illegality and avoid future incarceration. The paper proposes a study that explores the perceptions of faith and its role in crime desistance and within the societal re-entry process.

Literature Review

1. How Religion or Spirituality Elicits Beneficial Resources for the Reintegration Process According to Denney (2018), their is a perception from prison chaplains that religion provides a sense of community and belongingness for offenders that helps to deter them from 
crime. The author captures insight from his semi-structured interviews with Protestant Christian chaplains working within U.S. midwestern state-level or private prison facilities. Chaplains claim criminality stems from prisoners having a lack of constructive social networks. According to the respondents, this translates into the risk of released prisoners falling into the hands of criminal associates or into an unreliable support system of family and friends once they re-enter society. Yet, the respondents claim religion, even if outside Christianity, offers former inmates, “…the support, the affirmation, the invitation, and essentially the power to be different,” within their lives to help aid in their separation from a cycle of crime (Denney, 2018, p.716). In other words, there is the perception from chaplains that the institution of religion, applied in the life of exinmates, promotes a connection to community of fellow believers and instills a positive identity helping to reduce likelihood for recidivism.

Similarly, Denney (2018), Duwe and King (2013) propose faith-based communities or religious correctional programs provides a resource of moral accountability offenders can rely on in their desistance. Denney explains how a majority of his chaplain respondents view faith or religious affliction in the lives of prisoners as a beneficial social control mechanism that inspires values of “right” and “wrong.” With this ethical accountability through value codes, religion prompts a more legality mindset in prisoners post-release, along with purpose, and a motivation to transform from criminal tendencies. As chaplain Pamela points out, “when the guys have a level of accountability to God… no matter what religion… that translates to some of the actions on the streets. ” (Denney, 2018, p.714). From their longitudinal, recidivism outcome analysis, Duwe and King (2013), note involvement with the Minnesota faith-based re-entry program,

InnerChange Freedom Initiative, aids in prisoner reintegration through faith mentorship. This

study compares recidivism results from 2003-2009 between 366 male offender participants who had a community mentor for both in-prison and post-release periods and those who did not. Having an active faith mentorship relationship in both the in-prison and post-release community periods shows a reduced risk for recidivism among 173 offenders (44% rearrest, 52% reconviction, 95% new incarceration, 62% violation revocations) (Duwe and King 2013, p.832). This once again shows that prisoner ties to religion prompts a source of accountability in the lives of prisoners that can contribute to better re-entry with lower recidivism risk.

In his work, Johnson (2004) explains the impact of Bible study participation for offender participants involved with Prison Fellowship, a religious ministry program. Johnson notes there was not significant differential outcomes for offender program members versus non-members in terms of recidivism risk. However, the author finds high participation in Bible studies compared to low participation among program members produces a prolonged effect in re-arrest.Johnson explains, “… time to rearrest was 17 to 18 months longer among individuals in the high participation group, or 3.8 years versus 2.3 years” (Johnson 2004, p. 352)  In other words, greater religious commitment with higher Bible study involvement in prisoners, delays re-arrest for 1.5 years more post-release compared to faster re-arrest for low participatory members. In some capacity, religious association once again correlates to re-entry results, such as greater time postrelease before re-arrest with Bible study association.

2. Religion and Substance Use Desistance

According to Connolly and Granfield (2017), prior research strongly indicates that drug abuse by former prisoners is a huge obstacle in successful societal re-entry after incarceration.

This is partially due to a lack of social capital or resources known as “recovery capital” for ex- 
inmates who struggle with addiction. In their case study analysis, the authors examine the influence of reintegration support from a religious organization known as the “Street Ministry.” The organization holds a zero-tolerance mandate on alcohol or drug use. The authors refer to their qualitative interview sample of 13 male and 10 female African American ex-offenders with drug abuse history. Personal interviews suggest services provided by the religious program opens the door for development of financial credit, housing, social networks, life skills, and employment that decreases the odds of relapse due to homelessness or an illegal drug dealing job. Similarly, Stansfield, Mowen, O’Connor, and Boman (2017) discuss from their 2004-2007 longitudinal data analysis, the positive influence of religious support on employment and substance abuse desistance up to 15 months followup post incarceration. Religious support measures include yes/no questions on if religion created a difference, if they received religious assistance and found strength from spiritual faith. The authors conclude, “religious support exerts direct effects on lower levels of substance use and… increased levels of employment,” specifically in the short-term, post-release re-entry process (Stansfield et al. 2017, p. 135).

In their articles, Bakken, Decamp, and Visher(2014), Stansfield, Mowen, and O’Connor (2018), and Stansfield (2017), all suggest a correlation between religious or spiritual affiliation with former offenders and desistance from substance abuse.  Bakken, Decamp, and Visher (2014), differentiate between religion (participation and attachment to certain religious organizations through a shared group activity or doctrine) and spirituality (more intimate, private, and personal part of one’s life concerned with ultimate purpose of living) in their 3- phase, longitudinal-interview research. This study specifically looks at the facets of spirituality involved with a sample of male and female inmates re-entering society and their alcohol, 
marijuana, and cocaine desistance. The authors define spirituality to the degree offenders: pray, read religious text (e.g. Bible), attribute strength and guidance from God during the day, find moral, and goal inspiration.  The authors findings suggest higher levels of spirituality for prisoners correlates to better odds at desisting from alcohol and cocaine use. This desistance stems from “good” neighborhoods and from individual spirituality providing a source of psychological and emotional comfort in the reintegration process (e.g. positive identity building, social control mechanism on drug use).

Stansfield, Mowen, and O’Connor (2018), highlight the aspect of low or high risk offenders in their exploration of religion, spirituality, and desistance from substance usage post re-entry (“tranquilizers, stimulants, steroids, alcohol, marijuana, hallucinogens, methamphetamine, inhalants, cocaine, or heroin.”) (p. 262). The study’s high and low risk, differentiation scale includes the adult men sample’s age, number of prior offenses, and first offense age. The authors conclude from their longitudinal, Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative data analysis, religious support is associated with greater drug use desistance with lowrisk offenders, but not with high risk offenders post-release. Religious support is measured in the same capacity as in the work of Stansfield and co-authors (2017) discussed above. In yet another study, Stansfield (2017), analyzes degree of drug desistance post-conviction due to religion among a sample of delinquent youth offenders with a focus on their racial groupings- White, Hispanic, or African American. This time, Stansfield captures religion through juvenile offender interviews touching on agreement ratings to how relevant religion is in their life and if it helps them deal with struggles. The author determines, “religiosity is associated with reduced substance use among young White and Black ex-offenders,” confirming the beneficial influence 
of religion on drug desistance in certain offender populations (Stansfield 2017, p. 939).

Hypotheses/Expectations:

As Denney (2018) explains in the context of chaplain perceptions on the reintegration process, “The overall utility of religion/faith was primarily from the grounds that it provides offenders with a moral compass to help guide decision making,” aiding in crime desistance  (p. 719). Religion as a beneficial source of accountability in the lives of offenders during societal reentry is highlighted through both mentorship and religious program participation (Duwe and King, 2013). These religious resources also elicit opportunities with the building of employment and drug desistance for offenders post-release (Stansfield et al. 2017). All the articles and findings explored above, demonstrates the relevance in exploring how religion elicits successful outcomes for prisoners after release in terms of reintegration resources, reduced recidivism, and desistance from crime and substance abuse. Due to their work, I have been encouraged to explore in my research, how religion, faith, or spirituality impacts outcomes for ex-offenders in association to recidivism, crime, and illegal drug deterrence. I expect from my study, the presence of religion will be a factor in prompting positive reintegration (social networks, mentors, moral codes, employment) and greater odds for desistance (lower recidivism risk and drug usage) among exiting offenders.

Proposed Methodology and Data Collection Strategy:

A longitudinal, qualitative interview method will be utilized in my study. The semistructured interviews will either be face-to-face or through the phone and will be audio-recorded in three distinct phases post-prisoner release. I will be providing informed consent forms to my voluntary participants divided into two main groups- societal re-entering ex-offenders and 
religious associates working in a correctional setting or human service position with these individuals. The interviews will be conducted by the researcher through the phone or in-person within religious organizations, serving on a correctional basis in the prisoner transition to civilian life. The interviews will be with both genders of workers and recovering offenders (including a portion with a drug abuse history), ages eighteen or older. In order to see the influence of religiosity or spirituality over time within the reintegration process and odds of recidivism for exiting offenders, especially in the short term, interviews will occur initially 2 months postrelease with follow-ups at 6 and 10 months. I want to use the interview method in order to gather more in-depth qualitative data on the experiences and perceptions of religion on crime desistance and societal reintegration over time. The semi-structured interview style allows for more lengthy explanations, flexibility in the sequence of questions, depending on the certain respondent, and permits for the use of open-ended, and probe questions (Lecture, 2018). Since religion, societal reintegration, recidivism, and desistance from crime or substance abuse are all issues that are complex and multi-faceted, the semi-structured interview process aids in exploring these topics in an in-depth, personal, and unique context for each participant. The interview guide, used by me-the researcher, will hold a general outline of topics and questions in the awareness that new questions will probably develop during the interview (Lecture, 2018).

A non-probability, purposive sampling approach is planned to be used, with the possibility of snowball sampling, in case religious workers and associated ex-offenders are difficult to locate. Purposive sampling is relevant for this study since specific individuals are under investigation (religious personnel in a correctional context and ex-offenders (some with a drug abuse background). Snowball sampling might need to be utilized in order to conveniently
find more potential participants by the suggestions of religious associates working with exoffenders and their possible knowledge of different networks with faith-based prison programming and rehabilitation (Lecture, 2018). The total projected estimation of sample participants is 30- with 10 workers, 10 ex-offenders, and 10 ex-offenders with a drug history. The interviews will be on a voluntary basis, with no direct incentives, and will be confidential with the use of pseudonyms, the deletion of audio after transcription, and the use of researcher, password-protected devices. Some general interview questions include: Has religion or spirituality played a role in possible crime or drug desistance? Has religion inspired a certain set of values and morality in your life that influences your day-to day decision-making post-release? Do you perceive religious affiliation as a positive factor in social reintegration? If yes, in what ways? If no, why not? Are you under the impression that faith-based correctional programming has the ability to open up opportunities for ex-offenders with the transition to community life, such as with potential employment, and reliable social networks of support (e.g. fellow believers, faith mentors). Do you believe religion or faith is correlational to drug sobriety? If so, is this more in the short or long term context for former, recovering prisoners. Do you perceive religiosity or spirituality as making an impact on chances of recidivism? If so, is it positive with lowered risk of recidivism or negative with bringing higher odds?

Conclusion:

Religion has been cited as beneficial in the lives of U.S. ex-offenders in their societal reintegration and transition processes. Religion or faith brings the elicitation of prosocial  resources for released prisoners that also aids in potential crime desistance (e.g. drug use) and in
lower odds of recidivism in their lives, specifically in the short-term post- exit. This type of study 
is relevant since, overall in the U.S., recidivism is an ongoing social issue in the lives of incarcerated individuals and the criminal justice system. Religion is a prominent social institution shaping various belief systems, values, and norms that influences behaviors, cultures, and structures on institutional levels. This study is limited due to the lack of inclusion of juvenile ex-offenders and the longitudinal aspect of study being conducted just under a year, with only three phases of interviews. This means religion, recidivism risk, and re-entry outcomes can not be analyzed on a long term basis. However, on a more short-term basis, religion will be looked at in relation to post-prison release outcomes and the perception of the role of faith in crime desistance.

References

Bakken, N., Decamp, W., &Visher, C. (2014). Spirituality and desistance from substance use        among reentering offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and                 Comparative Criminology, 58(11), 1321-1339.

Connolly, K., &Granfield, R. (2017). Building recovery capital: The role of faith-based    communities in the reintegration of formerly incarcerated drug offenders. Journal of     Drug Issues, 47(3), 370-382.

Denney, A. (2018). Prison chaplains: Perceptions of criminality, effective prison programming      characteristics, and the role of religion in the desistance from crime. American               Journal of Criminal Justice, 43(3), 694-723.

Duwe, G., & King, M. (2013). Can faith-based correctional programs work? An outcome              evaluation of the InnerChange freedom initiative in Minnesota. International Journal of 

             Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 57(7), 813-841.

Johnson, B. (2004). Religious programs and recidivism among former inmates in Prison

Fellowship programs: A long-term follow-up study. Justice Quarterly, 21(2), 329-354. Stansfield, R., Mowen, T., O’Connor, T., &Boman, J. (2017). The role of religious support in        reentry: Evidence from the SVORI data. Journal of Research in Crime and       

            Delinquency, 54(1), 111-145.

Stansfield, R., Mowen, T., & O’Connor, T. (2018). Religious and spiritual support, reentry, and   risk. Justice Quarterly, 35(2), 254-279.

Stansfield, R. (2017). Drawing on religion in the desistance process: Paying attention to race         and ethnicity. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 44(7), 927-945.

Zoukis, C. (2017, December 07). Report Documents U.S. Recidivism Rates for Federal     Prisoners. Retrieved October 23, 2018, from https://www.huffingtonpost.com/