Justification of the study
Academic Justification
The justification of this study can be done at two levels. At the academic level and at the policy level. At the academic level, this study will be of great academic importance in the sense that it has established a big literature gap in the existing studies. This implies that the area of conference diplomacy is an area which has not been sufficiently researched. Also due to the emergence of global issues such as COVD -19, it altered the manner in which diplomacy is being carried out across the world. Similarly, the practice of conference diplomacy is getting improved on a daily basis in that the use of technology has been on the rampant increase in broadcasting such conferences. Therefore, the findings of this study will be useful in providing new ideas and information on matters of conference diplomacy. It will therefore be useful in knowledge expansion through expansion of the existing literature. This will be useful to the academicians in the field of international relations, foreign policy and diplomacy. They will be able to spike academic debates seminars and conferences to debate the raised ideas. Also, it will be useful to the researchers as it will form a basis for further research.
Policy Justification
This study will also be useful to the areas of policy in that it will review and assess most of the existing Kenya’s foreign policies on different subjects. It will also assess the status of Kenya’s delegations which are being sent to different international conferences and conventions. Similarly, it will be able to bring out the policy loopholes and further review the policy guidelines which are being used in the operationalization of Kenya’s foreign policy. The end result of this study is that; the findings and the recommendations which this study makes will be useful to policy makers. It will inform future policy making as well as provide ideas which will help to seal the loopholes in the existing foreign policies and sharpen the knowledge and skills of Kenyan foreign policy makers.
Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study will focus on assessing the impact of conference diplomacy in enhancing Kenya’s foreign policy. This implies that the main subject of interest will be how exactly conferencing diplomacy has benefited Kenya. It should be noted that conference diplomacy is one of the most expensive investments which a country undertakes, therefore logic demands that there has to be an R.O.I in that kind of an undertaking. The study will attempt to compare what has been spent on these conferences and the benefits Kenya has accrued. Similarly, the study will attempt to identify challenges which Kenya experiences in the process of using conference diplomacy as a strategy of pursuing its foreign policy.
Among the limitations are that finding the relevant respondents to participate in this study is likely to be an uphill task, this is because most of the relevant respondents are senior people in government and in the civil service who are always busy. Therefore, finding them is a bit hard. Another challenge is that most of the information which this study will be seeking will be classified information. There is no government officer who may be willing to share classified information with the researcher. Finally, undertaking this study requires a lot of time and resources which the researcher may not have due to his work-related duties.
However, in a bid to mitigate these limitations, the researcher will adopt both physical and virtual forms in contacting his respondents. The respondents will be assured of confidentiality. The information they give will be used for study purposes alone and not for any other purpose. In addition, the respondents will have an option to ignore uncomfortable questions.
Definition and Operationalization of Key Concepts
Conference Diplomacy: it refers to a multilateral diplomatic negotiation process that is often part of an ongoing negotiation process within a multilateral organization. The multilateral organization protects the negotiation processes and this protection enhances the effectiveness of negotiation as an alternative to warfare (Pippart & Earson, 2022). For the purposes of this study, Conference diplomacy will refer to all those multilateral engagements which Kenya is involved in a bid to enhance its foreign policy goals.
Delegations: Refers to any group of individuals which have been selected by a state to represent that state in a multilateral engagement, it’s usually done by foreign missions, embassies and high commissions (Rangreji, 2014). For the purposes of this study, it refers to the group of Kenyans who participates in the multilateral functions and negotiates on behalf of Kenya as a state.
Foreign Policy: It refers to the pursuit of a country’s public policy outside a state’s boundary. It also the process of a country pursuing its interests across the boarders in a bid to ensure its own survival and promotion of its citizens welfare (Scott, 2001).
International Organizations; it refers to all those inter-governmental organizations that brings together all the state actors on board in a bid to promote common interests for the benefit of all the states (Alaak, 2016). For the purposes of this study, international organizations will refer to EAC, IGAD, COMESSA, AU, UN and all the UN Agencies which frequently organizes conferences across the world.
Non-State Actors: It refers to all those bodies and persons who are participants in the international system but do not own and control territories (Melisen, 2007). For the purposes of this study, it will refer to the NGOs, MNCs as well as other private organizations
Literature Review
Introduction
In this section, the existing literature on matters dealing with Conference Diplomacy has been reviewed. Conference diplomacy will be discussed from global, continental, and local perspective. The section will compare and contrast the ideas of several scholars on matters of Conference Diplomacy, and it will then critique and concur with some of the ideas. The end result is to identify a literature Gap that this study is meant to fill.
Conference Diplomacy – Global Perspective
The beginning of conference diplomacy can be traced back to the 15th century when peace conferences used to take place in an effort to bring the ravaging wars to an end during the period. There was an intense war in the Italian peninsula. Peace conferences during the period played a key role, even in the centuries that followed, in bringing to an end the wars that spread to Westphalia, according to Melisen (2007). However, conference diplomacy fully came into effect openly in the Congress of Vienna as a new way of international organization for seeking peace. The concert of Europe and the Congress are examples of mechanisms that came up with a model of conference diplomacy and helped bring the raging war to an end. The assumptions behind the conferences shared the same ideas and principles as the present-day conference diplomacy. The conference was born out of the political process of the time and the fact that sovereign equality had been rejected globally (Kaufmann, 1996).
Conference Diplomacy in the 19th and 20th Century
The conferences that followed in the nineteenth century included the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 and the Congress of Berlin of 1878, whose aim was to prevent disagreements among powers in Europe. The Congress of Berlin aimed at reorganizing Balkan Peninsula states following the Russo-Turkish War, which took place between 1877 and 1878. As a result, the world was partitioned widely without respect for colonized territories’ determination. The Hague Peace Conference of 1899 and 1907 was proof of a move away from war to greater inclusivity (Scott, 2001). The Hague Conferences were inspired by the conferences that took place in America following the Panama Congress that had been organized by Simon Bolivar in 1826. The conferences at Hague had procedural innovations and features that had better membership. Participants during the period asked for institutionalization of the process, according to Cain Cross (2007).
Following the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, the League of Nations tried to institutionalize. A permanent diplomatic consultation in the League of Nations was created and given the primary role of mediating conflict. Therefore, it carried on with the work of peace conferences, which had started in the previous decades, and made it part and parcel of the parliamentary diplomacy model (Cull, 2008).
According to Berridge (2005), following the failure of the League of Nations and the end of World War two, it was necessary to have a new conference with the objective of setting up a new organization to protect the generations that were to come from the scourge of war. Conference diplomacy became a norm henceforth. The development of the United Nations helped prevent and manage global conflict on a large scale. The United Nations was in charge of establishing and safeguarding governance principles in the world.
During the Cold War and afterward, there was an increased conflict among the states in Latin America, and this led to a return to peace conferences. It was of paramount importance to agitate for peace among the states. Cull (2008) points out that in the 1980s, states in Latin America acted together to bring an end to the civil wars in Central America. This was done through a number of peace conferences and mediation efforts by the Contadora and Esquipulas peace process.
In the 1990s and in the 2000s, many peace conferences emerged that were organized for the Middle East. Some of the conferences are Camp David’s Middle East Peace Summit, The Madrid Conference, and the Oslo Conference, as noted by Ondero (2020). The peace conferences were very close to bringing to an end the violence in the Middle East and the fighting between Israel and its neighbors. However, the peace only lasted for a while because conflict broke out, and this showed the weakness of the peace conference because it never resulted in long-lasting peace.
Features of Conference Diplomacy
The first feature of conference diplomacy is marked by the occurrence of a peace conference immediately after a fight or during the fighting in an attempt to create peace (Kaufman, 2007). There are a number of such peace conferences, including the Geneva Two Conference, which intended to resolve the civil war in Syria, the Westphalia Peace Conference of 1648, and the 1919 peace conference in Paris (Onderco, 2020). The conference plays a vital role in conflict prevention and resolution.
The second feature of conference diplomacy is the fact that it plays an instrumental role in the promotion of peace globally. It also helps in preventing and controlling incidences of violence in society (Berridge, 2005). The Hague conferences are good examples of how conference diplomacy helps promote peace in the world. The first Hague Conference occurred in 1899, and the second one followed in 1907, and they both worked towards enabling peace initiatives during the period. The Hague court has a duty to investigate, charge, and try individuals suspected of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide all over the world (Melisen, 2007).
The third feature of conference diplomacy is that it indirectly prevents conflicts. The feature is engendered in global conference activities that gained popularity in the 1960s. The number of global conferences increased in an effort to promote peace globally, although they may not have perfectly achieved their goal of preventing conflict. Such conferences had their own goals and objectives, but as they pursued them, they tackled the root causes of conflict, such as cultural misunderstandings, poverty, and environmental degradation (Barston, 2006).
Use of Conference Diplomacy to Solve Emerging Challenges
According to Onderco (2020), it is necessary to involve all parties concerned in a peace conference if multilateral conferences are desired to be effective in the prevention of conflicts and the creation and implementation of sustainable peace. Considering the many challenges facing peace conferences, international peace, and security, the architecture of international peace conferences should be modernized to reflect the prevailing challenges. It is about time now that a conversation about reforms in global governance, including the United Nations Security Council, should begin so that its ability to prevent conflicts can be improved. It has been more than 200 years since the Congress of Vienna and more than 70 years since the United Nations was established. There is a need to collectively redesign the mission of such bodies to prevent conflicts in the world (Onderco, 2020).
The post-2015 United Nations development agenda is a good example of how conference diplomacy can be used to solve emerging challenges. It becomes interesting to observe modern conference diplomacy considering the 1814-15 Congress of Vienna bicentenary. The Congress of Vienna fulfilled its goal of creating peace and order for generations during a fragile period, according to Kaufmann (2017). It was during this period that regimes changed from rigid to modern, mass-transparent societies that are characterized by democracy and inclusiveness.
The Congress can be equated to the present-day conference diplomacy because it was the first ambassadors’ conference in history (Mellisen, 2007). It has lived up to its purpose since its establishment. The overall coordination of interconnected complex agendas, delayed response from respective headquarters, search for feedback, consultations in meetings, the ranking of representatives, and the choice of the various levels of negotiations all seem to be a collection of activities done currently at New York, Geneva, or Brussels. They are matters that pertain to the diplomatic life of making decisions and settling disputes to advance matters of interest to the global community. Additionally, the Congress of Viena affirmed the importance of mediation of conflict and made it part of diplomatic affairs (Mellisen, 2007).
Continental African Perspective and Development of Conference Diplomacy
Conference Diplomacy by Ethiopia
In the recent past, there was a diplomacy week and exhibition in Ethiopia where African countries discussed matters pertaining Africa (African Union, 2024). Mostly, the main agenda of the meeting was championing for Pan-Africanism. The theme of the meeting was to address education challenges in Africa. In the 37th summit of African Union, discussions revolved around promotion of tourism, agriculture, green heritage and Pan-Africanism. Ethiopia has played a big role by use of conference diplomacy in promotion of Africans interest. The Organization of African Unity (OAU) was created in Ethiopia with an objective of pushing for Africa unity, peace and prosperity (Mohammed, 2015). Addis Ababa has been the headquarters of the Organization of African Unity and many conferences therefore take place in Ethiopia.
Conference Diplomacy by Nigeria
On individual capacity, African heads of state have pursued conference diplomacy to drive the agenda of African interests. For example, Nigeria’s former president Obasanjo was a champion in development of Conference on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa (CSSDCA). He pushed for the integration of CSSDCA into the Africa Union framework which culminated in the creation of African Union in 2002. The president pushed his agenda through conference diplomacy where he urged African leadership to come together for that purpose.
Conference Diplomacy by South Africa
South Africa has also played role in the development of conference diplomacy in Africa. In several occasions, it has organized conferences where key matters affecting African countries are discussed. For example, in 2018, it organized a conference on Africa diplomacy where matters concerning identity of Africa and realities of changing work were discussed. According to Madise and Isike (2020), in conference diplomacies South Africa has been pushing for Ubuntu which is a philosophical statement emphasizing on humanity and interdependence of humanity globally. In the 15th BRICS summit recently held in South Africa, the country managed to push for the economic interest of South African to the members and it is a good example of use of conference diplomacy in Africa. According to van der Westhuizen (2024), South Africa is promoting economic cooperation between BRICS and African countries.
Conference Diplomacy by Egypt
Egypt has played a key role in push for African interest using conference diplomacy. This is has been achieved by organization and participation in several conference diplomacy in Africa. Some of the key conference diplomacy held in Egypt includes the Sharm El Sheikh Summit of 2005, where matters concerning climate change were discussed according to Abdelmoaty et al. (2023).
National Perspective of Conference Diplomacy in Kenya
Kenya has been a hub for peace in Sub-Sahara Africa and has played an instrumental role in building relationships and networks, enhancing mutual understanding, facilitating negotiations, resolving conflicts, and promoting economic cooperation through summits and conference diplomacy.
Conference Diplomacy in the 1960’s and 1970’s
As independence drew near for Kenya, various conferences were held in pursuance of independence. One of such conferences is the Lancaster House conferences that involved a number of meetings in 1960, 1962, and 1963. During the meetings, the framework of Kenyan constitution was discussed. In addition, the independence of Kenya was also negotiated.
The first conference was led by Lain Macleod who was the chairman of secretary of state for the colonies. The second conference started in 1962. The goal of the meeting was to negotiate the framework for self-governance in Kenya. The third conference happened in 1963, and all matters pertaining to the constitution and independence of Kenya were finalized. The conference marked the end of colonial rule in Kenya.
Therefore, the Lancaster House conferences played a key role in Kenya’s history in conference diplomacy. It was at that conference that Kenya negotiated for her independence from Britain, and it was such an important conference for Kenya in that it influenced the foreign diplomacy of Kenya as a young nation.
In the 1960s, Kenya emerged as a leading commercial hub in East and Central Africa. As a result, the Kenyan government took advantage of the moment and built an ultra-modern conference facility-KICC. KICC was meant to host regional African meetings and international meetings. KICC hosted meetings of the board of governors of the IMF and World Bank Group. Kenya hosted U.N. headquarters meetings at KICC after an intense negotiation, and this made it the first developing country to do so at the time. KICC later hosted the Global Forest in 1976. KICC has continued to host many landmark events since its opening that have influenced foreign diplomacy in Kenya. Some of these events are The 6 Tokyo International Conferences on African Development (TICAD), the United Nations 4th and 14th Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the 10th Ministerial Conference on World Trade Organization (WTO), 56th Commonwealth Parliamentary Conference, E.U. African Business Conference, The AGOA Forum, and executive council meeting for The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 9th African Caribbean Pacific Heads of States Summit, and Magical Kenya Travel Expo (KICC, 2024).
Conference Diplomacy in the1980’s and 1990’s
Some of the conferences diplomacy during the period includes the World Conference on Women and the Somali Reconciliation Conference. The third World Conference on Women took place at the University of Nairobi in 1985. The objective of the meeting was to assess the progress and failure made during the implementation of goals established earlier by the World Programme of Action during the second conference. (Bunch & Hinojosa, 2000; Bunch, 2012)
Conference Diplomacy in the 2000’s
The Somali reconciliation conference took place in 2002 and was held in Eldoret, Kenya. The conference hotly discussed matters of ongoing conflict in Somalia.
The United Nations Climate Change Conference was one of the landmark diplomatic events that took place in November 2006. The conference included the 2nd Kyoto Protocol (MOP2) parties’ meeting and the 12th conference meeting of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (COP12).
The sixth Annual Global Entrepreneurship Summit (GES) was held at the United Nations Complex in Nairobi in 2015 (United Nations, 2015). The objective of the summit was to promote entrepreneurship and economic opportunities globally. It was an initiative of the U.S. government marking its commitment to promote entrepreneurship globally.
The organization of African, Caribbean and pacific States organized a 9th summit in Nairobi in 2019. The summit called for renewal and continued cooperation of African, Caribbean and pacific States to fight environment degradation, poverty and their root causes (OACPS, 2019).
Kenya hosted the African Climate Summit (ACS) in September 2023 at the KICC. The summit discussed the matters associated with climate change in Africa and probable solutions to mitigate the problem (ACS23, 2023). The conference provided an opportunity for stakeholders to inform, frame, and influence outcomes, pledges, and commitments to tackle the challenges of climate change globally and Africa in particular.
The development of conference diplomacy over the years since independence has impacted the country in a big way diplomatically. It has helped define Kenya in relation to other countries. Through conference diplomacy, Kenya has got a chance to contribute to various issues affecting the international community, such as climate change, international trade, entrepreneurship, human rights, and conflict resolution. It has been able to promote its interest globally.
Literature Gap
The main literature Gap in this study is that there are several scholars such as Rangreji (2014), Pippart and Earson (2022), Kaufman (2017), Onderco (2022) and Aslak (2016) who have written landmark ideas on conference diplomacy. There is none of the said scholars who have written anything on how conference diplomacy impacts on a countries foreign policy more so in Kenya. Their writings are also silent on how a country gains by improving the living standards of its people through sending in delegations to many international conferences which is a bit costly to the tax payers. Similarly, the existing studies are also silent on the challenges which a country’s delegations experiences when participating in these international conferences and conventions. Therefore, the findings and the recommendations made by this study will be useful in sealing these literature gaps or loopholes.
Theoretical Framework
Liberalism Theory
This study will be anchored on liberalism theory which argues that in the international system, the question of power and survival of the state is not the only concern of the state. However, there are multiple other issues which concern the state. These multiple issues includes but not limited to economic affairs, climate change, tourism, social and cultural affairs just to mention but a few (Berridge, 2005). Therefore, in order for the state to strike deals with many other states, it requires conferencing diplomacy in order to achieve its objective.
Secondly, Jackson and Sorenson (2010) notes that this theory argues that states are not the only important actors in the intranational system instead there are other important actors such as the non-states actors. These non-state actors include international organizations, NGOs, IGOs, social groups, individuals, drug traffickers, terrorists among others. Their demands and relative power in the society is a fundamental force which influences policies in countries and the world order ultimately
The theory also believes that state sovereignty and territorial integrity are not the only issues which concern the state; instead there are other issues such as economic issues, social and cultural issues which concern the states around the world and the international community (Scott, 2001). This implies that in the conference set up There are multiple and myriad issues which are discussed and agreed upon. It’s not just limited to matters security and protection of the territory. It’s all about human beings from wherever they are. Therefore, conference diplomacy is able to dissect every necessary issue in an expeditious manner.
Another argument of this theory is that the structure of the international system is not anarchic since there are intranational institutions such as international organizations which regulate the behaviors of both the states and the on-state actors (Scott, 2001). Therefore, conference diplomacy will be there to promote harmony among the states and the non-state actors which is one of the greatest benefits to humanity across the world.
The theory has several limitations considering that the world is a complex and multifaceted. Therefore, there is no single theory that can comprehensively provide a concrete explanation to matters affecting the globe. In addition, theories tend to oversimplify complex matters into small parts that are manageable which is not possible practically. The theory is also based on many assumptions; therefore, it is subject to biases in application and interpretation. The limitation of the theory is overcome by exploring research articles and studies on the same topic to understand the multifaceted nature of conference diplomacy.
Realism Theory
Realism theory in international relations recognizes competition and conflicts in international relations. It explains the reality of politics internationally (Antunes & Camisão, 2018). Lack of a central authority above the state is one of the main causes of competition and conflicts internationally. Human beings are selfish in nature.
The theory assumes in international relations, states are usually the principle actors. Other bodies like NGOs and individuals exists but have limited powers internationally. The state is the unitary actor especially in times of conflict (Antunes & Camisão, 2018). During period of wars, individuals and NGOs cannot act on behalf of state internationally. National interests prevail and the state presents or fights for itself internationally. The state speaks in period of war and it is a unifying factor for all parties in a country. National interests are pursued by all because decision makers act rationally. It would be irrational for individuals and other parties to take actions that would render their state weak. Therefore, all actions are geared towards national interests. All leaders join hands to manage state affairs irrespective of their political divide so that they can survive in an environment which is competitive. Lastly, the theory assumes that anarchy prevails at state level and no individual is personally in charge. Instead, only institutions like police forces, courts, and militaries can salvage the situation. At such times, no person can salvage a state at individual capacity and no there is no functional established hierarchy or political authority.
The theory fills the limitations of liberalism which assumes that which argues that in the international system, the question of power and survival of the state is not the only concern of the state. It states that all irrespective of their differences and interests in a state join forces for self preservation as state and to safe guard their interests. Diplomacy can be one of the tools used for purposes of advancing national interests in terms of strategic alliance and security (Antunes & Camisão, 2018). Hegemony solves international anarchy because international relations are characterized by power, international interests, and states. International system is anarchic, competitive and conflictual (Fernandes, 2016). Currently, the US is the dominant power globally and regulates any occurrence of war or conflicts.
