The Etruscans and their influence on Rome

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In efforts to study and understand the Greek culture, the plague of questions in relation to Etruscans has emerged among the historians. Most important ones being; who were the Etruscans? And how did they influence the development of early Rome? For instance, it is believed that the Etruscans, a branch of Pelasgians dating back from 700 B.C., had a brilliant civilization that controlled almost the entire Rome. To some historians, their origin remains mysterious and obscure. Essentially important, the modern historians have tried to venture more into ancient history to determine whether the views about the Etruscans have changed in the past 100 years. The paper therefore focuses on providing the answers to these questions, with detailed discussion about the origin of Etruscans, their political, religious, art and architecture influence on Rome.

The Etruscans’ identity and how they influenced the early Rome.

The Greek history has held the claim that, the first Etruscans, a branch of Pelasgians used to live in Aegean Region.[i] However, some of the ancient historians claim that they originated from Lydia, a small kingdom of western Anatolia. As a matter of fact, their origin and early culture, remains mysterious and obscure even at the present time. However, there is more to tell about their early culture (around 600 B.C), the time when Roman culture was undergoing rapid developments in terms of civilizations.

During this period, the Etruscan cities were flourishing both in Italy and Rome. During sixth century, the century of 500’s B.C, the influence of Etruscan culture and civilization across the Rome was evident.[ii] With the Roman myth, archaeologies such as shepherd villages on seven hills (Rome), everyone would tell that the history of Rome started with Etruscans. The key of Etruscan impact on Rome was the “Etruscan development,” the name offered today to the way of life and lifestyle of an individual’s of old Italy whom old Romans called Etruscan or Tusci, antiquated Greeks called Tyrrhenoi orTyrrsenoi and who called themselves Rasenna, syncopated to Rasna or Raśna. As recognized by its own dialect, the human progress persevered from an obscure ancient time before the establishment of Rome until its complete osmosis to Ancient Rome in the Roman Republic; various remnants of Etruscan society do survive the Roman success. At its greatest degree amid the establishment time of Rome and the Roman kingdom, it thrived in three alliances: of Etruria, of the Po valley and Latium and of Campania. Rome was sited in Etruscan region. There is extensive proof that early Rome was overwhelmed by Etruscans until the Romans sacked Veii in 396 B.C.E.[iii]

A great part of Etruria culture can be found from the local populace, who were liable to, however most likely not slaves of, their heros; the honorability of Etruscan birth shaped a selective position. Ladies had a strangely high status contrasted with the old Greeks and Romans. Etruscan riches and influence were to some degree based upon their insight into ironworking and their abuse of iron stores that were copious in Etruria. Etruscan craftsmanship, which to a great extent comprised of figure in dirt and metal, fresco tomb depictions, and fine ceramics, had some of its birthplaces in Greek and Eastern expressions and was to a great degree powerful on the specialty of the Romans. Attached to music, diversions, and dashing, the Etruscans brought the chariot into Italy. They were likewise very religious. Looking to force request on nature, they built up strict laws to administer the relations amongst individuals and divine beings. Without the logical logic of the Greeks, they attempted to drag out the lives of the dead by embellishing their tombs like houses. While religion is maybe the best-known part of Etruscan development, it remains entirely puzzling.

Generally, the Etruscans were organized into a free confederation of city-states toward the north of Rome. Around 600 B.C., they took control of the site of Rome, with its faultless slopes and area on a portage of the Tiber River.[iv] They did various things to change this unrefined gathering of shepherds’ cottages into a genuine city. The Etruscans presented rectangular urban arranging. They depleted the encompassing bogs and fabricated underground sewers. They assembled open works utilizing the curve and vault, and laid out streets and extensions. They advanced exchange, the improvement of metallurgy, and better horticulture in and around Rome.[v]

The Etruscans, being intensely affected by the Greeks, additionally presented the Greek letter set, along these lines bringing Greek impact into Roman society. Truth be told, Roman nobles amid this period would send their children to be instructed in Etruscan schools much as they would later send their children to Greece for training. The Etruscan religion, specifically the custom of warriors battling when holding the burial service of a lord or respectable, likewise affected Rome. For instance, the Romans developed a prominent stimulation that was held to delight the masses. Roman funerals for the first class were stupendous happenings with much grandeur and condition, including a parade through town with a train of procured artists, bereaved people, and clerics.[vi] In addition, the integration of the culture is seen much later in Christian pictures of evil presences that appear to be designed according to Etruscan devils.

By large, the Romans owed an extraordinary arrangement to the Etruscans. The expert they would appear for urban arranging, street and extension building, and structural designing activities, for example, open water systems and showers, was an immediate after effect of the legacy left by the Etruscans. Undeniably, the Romans had put the lessons of the Etruscans to reasonable use. The showers and coliseums are tributes to the aptitude of Rome’s incredible developers. In view of the utilization of the Etruscans’ art and engineering, the Romans had expanded more on a noteworthy scale than the Greeks, who utilized the post and lintel (a pillar bolstered by two sections). The curve can bolster a great deal more weight than the post and lintel. Roman water passages were frequently three levels of curves heaped one on top of another. Furthermore, their structures, for example, the Baths of Caracalla, encased tremendous open zones.

By 500 B.C., the Etruscans had made Rome most imperative city in the focal Italian area of Latium.[vii] This empowered it to rule its nearby neighbors; the Latin lastly urged it to defy its lords. Two different variables supported the Romans in their battle. Above all else, Rome’s slopes and strongholds guarded it against assault. Second, the Etruscans’ free association into an alliance of autonomous city-states made them defenseless against assault by the Greeks in South Italy who were their opponents for exchange and ocean power. The Greeks won a conclusive triumph, which permitted Rome to effectively shake off Etruscan guideline around 500 B.C.E. on the other hand later. In any case, Etruscan animosity remained a genuine risk for the majority of a century. In this way, it was not until around 400 B.C. that Rome was sufficiently secure to set out upon its own particular way of success.[viii]

Early Rome was profoundly impacted by Etruscan culture (Rome” is Etruscan). Between the late sixth and mid fourth hundreds of years BC, Etruscan power declined.[ix] Toward the south, the rising force of the Greek city-conditions of Sicily and southern Italy debilitated Etruscan political and military impact, and urban areas which they had either ruled or established. For example, Rome tossed out their overlords and got to be free city-states. In the north, Gallic tribes moved into northern Italy and demolished the Etruscan urban communities there. Be that as it may, in their country the Etruscan urban are[x]as stayed effective, and were impressive adversaries of the rising force of Rome. It was just over a long stretch, in the fourth and third hundreds of years BC that they surrendered their autonomy to the Romans. The Etruscans talked a one of a kind dialect, random to those of their neighbors. The Etruscans way of life greatly influenced the Romans. In fact, the early Rome starting point and letter is greatly set on the Etruscans culture.

Rome being situated on the edge of what was the Etruscan country. Certain establishments and traditions came specifically from the Etruscans to Rome. Truth be told, the name of Rome itself has of Etruscan root, similar to the names of its incredible authors, Romulus and Remus. There were solid Latin and Italic components to Roman society, and later Romans gladly praised these various starting points. Prior to the Etruscan arrived (without a doubt as a decision bunch), in any case, Rome was likely an accumulation of little cultivating settlements. The Etruscans tip top furnished it with its initial political courses of action (government, armed force) and urban foundation (dividers, gathering, seepage framework); to put it plainly, it was presumably they who transformed Rome into an all out the city.[xi]
Few Etruscan words entered the Latin dialect, however those that did had a tendency to be to do with state power: the frock palmata (a justice’s robe), the sella curulis (officer’s seat), and the fasces – a heap of whipping bars encompassing a two fold bladed hatchet, conveyed by judge’s chaperons (lictors). The fasces symbolized authoritative force. Additionally, the word crowded is of Etruscan inference, and initially alluded to the general population collected for war, as an armed force, as opposed to the general masses.[xii] The early Romans were profoundly impacted by their more socialized Etruscan rulers, whose engraving can be found in the Romans’ written work, workmanship and design, religion, military matters, stimulation (as in the gladiatorial battle) and presumably a large group of different parts of day by day life. In this way forming Roman human advancement, the Etruscans had along these lines a persevering impact on the Rome.

Modern interpretations

However, for the last 100 years different views concerning the Etruscans influence on Rome have emerged. Most of these views seem to partially or not to support the ancient writing. For instance, students of history would contend Rome was much developed by Italy, with confirmation for foundations, language, religious components and other social components. For example, the modern historians argue that, the roman language only integrated few prefixes and suffixes from the Etruscans such as Sveama-χ ‘(someone from Sovana) and -χ: Velzna-χ ‘(someone from Volsinii’) which cannot prove that the language conclusively originated from Etruscan.[xiii]  In fact, most of the Romans writings had more of italics, indicating that they had greatly been influenced by Italy as opposed to Etruscans. The genuine picture is fairly more confused, not slightest on the grounds that the Etruscan urban areas were isolated elements which never met up to shape a solitary Etruscan state. Besides, there were solid Latin and Italic components to Roman society, and later Romans gladly commended these numerous, “multicultural” impacts on the city.[xiv]

The cutting edge antiquarians additionally trust that, just little is thought about the engineering of the antiquated Etruscans. As an issue of the realities, they adjusted the engineering styles with impact from the outside appearance of Roman Culture.[xv] As of right now, the Ancient Roman engineering could thusly not have started with Etruscan styles, taking note of that it had further impact in the Greek society. Indeed, Roman sanctuaries demonstrate the equipped of Romans in design abilities when contrasted with the Etruscan sanctuaries and also those of Greeks. The places of the rich Rome were apparently frequently vast and happy with indicating solid will to survive (presently relics) rather than those of Etruscans which would be based on chambers under “necropoli” and “tumulus.”[xvi]  It is from these realities that cutting edge clarification contends that the Etruscan engineering did not impact the Greco-Roman traditional design.

Essentially important, new views about Rome having been founded by Etruscans has emerged. From modern interpretations, it becomes unnecessary to discuss the influence of Etruscans on Rome noting that they originally shared common cultural aspects and governance. Consider this; Prehistoric studies affirm a broad level of demolition of Rome by flame dated on 15 B.C.E. – 17 C.E which as per antiquated history executed every one of the Romans pioneers.[xvii] The Later history relates that the Etruscans lived in the Tuscus vicus (the “Etruscan quarter”), and that there was an Etruscan line of lords (yet ones slid from Demaratus the Corinthian) instead of the non-Etruscan line. Demaratus was father to Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth ruler of Rome and granddad of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last lord.[xviii] These perspectives must originate from the later decrease of Etrurian urban communities and retention of the Etruscan populaces into the Roman state. If one somehow managed to start describing every one of the organizations and persons said to be Etruscan, and contrasting social items with ones known not been of Etruscan birthplace, an initially Etruscan Rome shows up unmistakably. Etruscans established Rome, every one of the rulers were Etruscans, and the most punctual government was Etruscan.

Nevertheless, the high social accomplishments of Rome may have been to a great extent subsidiary, and the Etruscan legacy was an essential fixing. In this way it can be said that the Etruscan legacy made a noteworthy commitment to the way of life (Rome) that did much to bind together Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, and whose legitimate and regulatory frameworks are still the premise of numerous European states. However the Etruscan commitment has not generally been recognized, as due in no little part to the Romans, who in their own particular comprehension of their inceptions had a tendency to make light of their obligation to Etruria.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Etruscans are believed to belong to Pelasgians dating back from 700 B.C. More importantly, Etruscans had a brilliant civilization that controlled almost the entire Ancient Rome. It is from control that they were able to influenced ancient Rome art, engineering, political and religion. Although the modern ideas conflict with the impacts, the influence of the “Etruscans Civilization” and heritage on the Rome cannot be overlooked. In fact, the high social accomplishments of Rome may have been to a great extent subsidiary, and the Etruscan legacy was an essential fixing. In this way it can be said that the Etruscan legacy made a noteworthy commitment to the way of life (Rome) that did much to bind together Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, and whose legitimate and regulatory frameworks are still the premise of numerous European states.

 


 

Bibliography

Beard, Mary, John North, and Simon RF Price. Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a             History. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 1998. 1-34.Boëthius, Axel, Roger Ling, and Tom Rasmussen. Etruscan and early Roman             architecture. Yale University Press, 1978: 1-121.

Bonfante, Larissa, and Judith Swaddling. Etruscan Myths. Netbiblo, 2006: 46-            101

Brilliant, Richard. Visual narratives: Storytelling in Etruscan and Roman art.             Cornell Univ Pr, 1984:1-15

Goldscheider, Ludwig, and Ilse Schneider-Lengyel. Etruscan Sculpture...

Harris, William Vernon. Rome in Etruria and Umbria. Clarendon Press,             1971: 27-154.

Ling, Roger. Roman painting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991: 1-            245.

Mitchell, Richard E. Patricians and plebeians: the origin of the Roman state.             Cornell Univ Pr, 1990: 121-133.

Old Bailey Proceedings Online (www.oldbaileyonline.org, version 7.2, 02 May             2016), April 1674 (f16740429-1).

Old Bailey Proceedings Online (www.oldbaileyonline.org, version 7.2, 02 May             2016), April 1674, trial of Prisoner (t16740429-1).

Old Bailey Proceedings Online (www.oldbaileyonline.org, version 7.2, 02 May             2016), Ordinary of Newgate’s Account, May 1676 (OA16760517)..

Perkins, JB Ward. “Etruscan and Roman roads in southern Etruria.” Journal of             Roman Studies 47, no. 1-2 (1957): 139-143.

Scullard, Howard Hayes, and Howard H. Scullard. The Etruscan Cities and             Rome. Thames and Hudson, 1967. 1-214

Smith, Christopher John. The Roman clan: The gens from ancient ideology to             modern anthropology. Cambridge University Press, 2006: 12-36

Ward-Perkins, John B. “Etruscan engineering: road-building, water-supply and             drainage.” Hommages à Albert Grenier 3 (1962): 1-636.

 

[i] Beard, Mary, John North, and Simon RF Price. Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a    History. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, 1998. 32.

 

[ii] Religions of Rome: Volume 1, 33.

[iii] Boëthius, Axel, Roger Ling, and Tom Rasmussen. Etruscan and early Roman architecture. Yale University Press, 1978: 81.

 

[iv] Ibid,.32.

[v] Bonfante, Larissa, and Judith Swaddling. Etruscan Myths. Netbiblo, 2006: 46.

 

[vi] Etruscan Myths. Netbiblo, 46.

 

[vii] Ibid,.47.

[viii] Goldscheider, Ludwig, and Ilse Schneider-Lengyel. Etruscan Sculpture…

Harris, William Vernon. Rome in Etruria and Umbria. Clarendon Press, 1971: 150.

 

[ix] Rome in Etruria and Umbria. Clarendon Press, 154.

 

[x]

[xi] Ling, Roger. Roman painting. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991: 240.

[xii] Roman painting.  Cambridge University Press, 244.

 

[xiii] Mitchell, Richard E. Patricians and plebeians: the origin of the Roman state. Cornell Univ Pr, 1990: 121.

[xiv] Cornell Univ Press, 120.

[xv] Ibid,.130

[xvi] Perkins, JB Ward. “Etruscan and Roman roads in southern Etruria.” Journal of   Roman Studies 47, no. 1-2 (1957): 139.

[xvii] Journal of Roman Studies 47, no. (1-2), 141.

[xviii] Ibid,.142.

Health Effects of Anorexia Nervosa

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Introduction

 

An eating disorder (ED) is a psychological disorder characterized by abnormal eating habits (Allakbari et al, 2014). Eating pathology is another term for used for eating disorder. There are different forms of eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa (AN) is characterized by a fear of weight gain which leads to faulty eating patterns, malnutrition, and typically excessive weight loss (Mahn and Lordly, 2015). Bulimia nervosa (BN) is an eating disorder involving distortion of body image; typically, extreme overeating is followed by self-induced vomiting, purging, or fasting (Mahn and Lordly, 2015).

Shame is a painful feeling of humiliation or distress caused by the consciousness of wrong or foolish behavior (Kelly and Carter, 2013). Shame can be categorized in many ways, the most common being internalized shame, externalized shame, and bodily shame. As defined by Redshaw and Troop (2012), internalized shame is how one sees or judges the self and external shame is how one perceives how others see the self. Bodily shame, according to Redshaw and Troop (2012), is typically a negative attitude toward one’s weight or size. Bodily shame has subcategories in itself: current and anticipated bodily shame. Current bodily shame involves the negative thoughts one has about his or her own body in its current physical condition. When a person experiences guilt at the thought of gaining weight, it is defined as anticipated bodily shame. People with eating disorders often have prevalent feelings of shame, which fuels their disorder further.

To counteract feelings of shame, medica professionals have developed a therapy program specifically to combat eating pathologies. This type of therapy is called Compassion Focused Therapy. Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT) targets diminishing feelings of shame

 

 

 

and producing feelings of compassion toward the self.   One of the ways this is done, is by allowing the family of the patient to get involved in the treatment. The purpose of the family’s involvement is to offer support, empathy, and even another outlet for the patient to help battle their illness. (Goss and Allan, 2014). Another way, is by exposing the patient to self-accepting behaviour. If the patient is taught to accept the way his or her body is and to understand he or she must not feel guilt by his or her form, then the patient will start the process of remission.

The purpose of the studies conducted was to identify the health effects of different eating disorders, to identify how the different types of shame correlate with the development of eating pathologies, and to determine whether Compassion Focused Therapy was more effective with short-term inpatient treatment, or with long-term outpatient treatment. The objective of this report was to identify the health risks eating disorders pose, to establish how feelings of shame can manifest within a person with an ED, and to determine whether compassion focused therapy is a functional treatment method for eating pathologies.

Discussion

 

The individual types of shame (internal, external and bodily) produce different results in people with eating disorders. In the studies examined, it has been determined that a person is more likely to develop anorexia if they show signs of internal shame. If a person indicates signs of external shame, it is more likely to result in bulimia. The study by Bariairi, Kelly and Carter (2014), and the experiment by Kelly and Carter (2012) are compared to determine that short- term inpatient programs are more effective than long-term outpatient programs.

 

 

 

Health Effects of Anorexia Nervosa

There are multiple health risks, both mentally and physically, that anorexia poses. Some of the major health risks being low bone mass density, heart failure, and depressive and obsessive tendencies.

In the research conducted by Elamin, Erwin, McGovern, Montori, Swiglo, and Sim it is determined that AN is characterized specifically by low bone mass density (BMD) in adolescents and adults. Low BMD, also termed osteoporosis, causes bones to become thin and weak increasing the risk of broken bones. Simple activities such as walking or even standing still can cause fractures. As well as osteoporosis, Elamin and colleagues found that people with AN have serious cardiac problems. Heart failure in patients with anorexia has numerous causes; researchers found the most common cause of heart failure to be muscle loss. The body as a whole begins to lose muscle mass, resulting in the heart reducing in size and strength. As the muscle walls of the heart diminish it is no longer able to pump blood efficiently, and as a result, induces stress that the heart cannot handle. In this study the mortality rate of AN was recorded to be 20%, leading causes being cardiac arrest or suicide. The physical health effects of anorexia were so extreme due to the fact the body being denied essential nutrients and therefore is no longer functioning properly.

In contrast, Allakbari, Campbell, and Noordenbos (2014) identified the mental effects of AN. Anorexia is identified as an addiction-type illness; because of this people with anorexia tended to develop obsessive compulsive behaviour. In this study, individuals with AN reported having schedules and systems of which they strictly abided by. Similarly, Kelly and Carter (2012) also found that participants adhered to specific rules that were set for themselves. Both research groups reported not yet having been able to identify whether the systems these patients adhere to are to punish or alleviate themselves.

 

 

 

Collecting information from these various studies have proven anorexia is a toxic, and at times, fatal disease that overwhelms the patient’s body and mind. It can lead to numerous serious health risks, however, the most prominent have shown to be osteoporosis, heart failure and obsessive tendencies.

Health Effects of Bulimia Nervosa

 

Similarl to anorexia, bulimia can cause intense problems with the psyche and the physical body. Some problems include hearing internal voices, and esophageal perforation.

During interviews conducted by Allakbari, Campbell and Noordenbos (2012), patients with BN reported hearing an inner voice which commands them to restrict their eating habits and weight gain. The voices were insistent that the patient must expel whatever contents filled his or her stomach as quickly as possible. Also concluded in the interviews, the voices began as conscious thoughts but over time became supervisory commands. The researchers are puzzled as to why the voices turn from intentional to uncontrollable. The internal voices compromise the patient’s health due to the fact they are demanding physical damage to the body.

As well as hearing internal voices, Mahn and Lordly (2015) found rupturing of the esophagus to be a health risk of BN. The esophagus is a tube which connects the oral cavity to the stomach. Rupture of the esophagus is a serious complication of bulimia, the root cause is repetition of violent vomiting. Although the esophagus consists of multiple cutaneous layers, stomach acid can still corrode through it. When the esophagus has a perforation stomach acid exits the tear and leaks into other parts of the body. If this condition is left untreated it is fatal. Through their studies, Mahn and Lordly (2015) found the mortality rate of BN to be 3.9%, with suicide being the leading cause.

 

 

 

These studies are in agreement that the effects of BN can be detrimental to a person’s health. The major physical health risk of bulimia being esophageal perforation, and the major mental concern being the onset of aggressive internal voices.

The Relationship between Feelings of Shame and Eating Disorders

 

Typically, people modify their behaviour so as to reduce the feelings of shame they experience (Redshaw, et al 2012).  This is why number of studies have found positive relationships between feelings of shame and eating pathologies.

In the research conducted by Kelly and Carter (2012), it was proven that people who experience external bodily shame are more likely to develop bulimia nervosa. Meaning patients who suffer from BN are ashamed of how they appear to others more so than how they appear to themselves. Anorexia, however, was found to be the opposite. People with AN more commonly encounter internal bodily shame. Results also demonstrate that shame builds in diseases such as BN because of the cycle it produces; the patients who induced binging and purging behaviours formed worsening feelings of shame.

Similarly, in the research performed by Redshaw and Troop (2012) the intent was determine the contribution shame had to both anorexic and bulimic symptoms. Participants in this study were individuals who self-reported having an eating disorder and were recruited from the Eating Disorder Unit, Institute of Psychiatry in London. Although 341 names were originally enlisted, only 55 women completed both baseline and follow-up assessments, meaning there was a 25% follow up rate. The study only shows results for the 25% of members who completed both evaluations. 56% of the 55 participants were self-reported anorexics, and 44% were bulimics. The average age for this study was recorded to be 36.4 years of age. The SEED, a self-report questionnaire, was given to measure behavioural symptoms of eating disorders. Results showed

 

 

 

behavioural eating habits were dependent on whether the person suffered from bulimia or anorexia. Three more questionnaires were given as a baseline measure and a follow up measure. These questionnaires were: The Bodily Shame Scale (BSS), The Personal Feelings Questionnaire (PFQ), and The Other as Shamer Scale (OSS). First of all, the BSS was used to determine the feelings, thoughts and behaviours that relate to shame directed toward the body. Secondly, the PFQ was a measurement of shame and proneness to guilt by rating which feelings they felt more strongly on a regular basis. As well as BSS and PFQ, OSS was used as a measure to establish feelings of shame in relation to an outsider’s perspective. These results indicated that bodily shame predicted an increase in anorexic symptoms but not in bulimic symptoms, and that general shame made no additional contribution. The results also concluded that current bodily shame proved to be a strong predictor of binge-eating and purging, whereas anticipated bodily shame was a strong indicator of behaviour related to weight avoidance.

The statements from both of these studies are in agreement about the fact that shame specifically contributes to the growth and upkeep of both anorexia and bulimia. Although results slightly differ between whether bodily shame or general shame generates which eating disorder, they do both recognize that different feelings of shame create either anorexia or bulimia categorically.

The Utilization of Compassion-Focused Therapy

 

Compassion focused therapy (CFT) was developed specifically to assist those who suffer from eating disorders due to feelings of shame, self-criticism and self-hostility (Goss et al, 2014). According to Borairi, Carter and Kelly (2014), people who are exposed to neglect and abuse early in life are more prone to self-criticism, and eventually psychopathology. In support of this, studies performed by Goss and Allan (2014) provide evidence that when individuals allow

 

 

 

compassion toward themselves to grow it significantly relieves a range of mental health illnesses. Empathy towards those with eating disorders is also a strong antithesis to feelings of guilt and shame.

According to a study conducted by Goss and Allan (2014) the development and practice of compassion would be the remedy to eating disorders caused by shame. This involved three courses of action: being open to compassion from others, being compassionate towards others, and developing compassion towards oneself. They found that other courses of treatment were not as effective as CFT, due to the fact they limited the patients ability to use a soothing method to stop feelings that, for example, caused purging. CFT however, enhanced the use of soothing systems. It also focused specifically on helping patients foster the ability to experience gratifying emotions as well as manage feelings of anxiety and guilt. It was discovered that individuals who could not balance their emotions tend to become overly competitive; the results from this study suggested that people with anorexia are especially focused on ambitiousness. Compassion is often inhibited in people who have a highly ambitious mentality, because of this, they tend to be socially isolated. The treatment they found effective was a two-stage process consisting of psycho-education, and capacity building. It was also found more effective when delivered in a group format. Firstly, the psycho-education is used solely as an individual learning approach to the patient’s disorders and what may have led to their development. Secondly, the group capacity building aimed to practice giving and receiving compassion. Group work was also effective due to the fact it assisted with social isolation.

In agreement with Goss and Allan, the research performed by Carter and Kelly (2013) aimed to prove that inhibiting feelings of shame in highly self-critical individuals was prudent to the recovery from their eating disorders. Therefore, their purpose was to prove that CFT was the

 

 

 

most effective treatment program. Their study suggests the most adequate way to regulate shame is to encourage compassion. The more self-critical the patient then the more likely it is that shame plays a role in the maintenance of their eating disorder. A compulsive focus on weight is viewed as an isolating approach to managing shame. Their methods to recovery were similar to that of Allan and Goss, in that they focused on peer and family group building, and establishing shame-withstanding behaviours. Kelly and Carter (2014) noted that when the patient’s family involved themselves in the recovery process, the patient had a quicker remission rate.

From the comparison of these two studies it can be concluded that compassion focused therapy is an adequate treatment program due to the fact it directly targets the root cause of eating disorders. When an eating disorder is developed due to feelings shame, shame acts as a catalyst. Logically, the best course of action would be to isolate and remove the catalyst to prevent any further progression of the illness.

Short-term Inpatient versus Long-term Outpatient Treatment

 

There are two types of Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT) to prevent relapse of eating disorders. They are short term inpatient treatment, and long term outpatient treatment.

Research was conducted by Borairi, Carter, and Kelly (2014) to prove that eating disorder patients could be in remission within 12 weeks of starting inpatient CFT. They deduced that the more consistently the patient was exposed to stimulation of inner-kindness then the more likely the patient was to remain in remission. Participants in this study were collected from Toronto General Hospital’s inpatient treatment program. The sample group of 97 consisted of 94 women, and the age group varied from 17-57. For a baseline measurement of where the patients were at emotionally, eating disorder symptoms, shame levels, and self-compassion ability were measured through respective questionnaires. Participants completed similar questionnaires four

 

 

 

more times over the duration of the treatment to assess their progress. By the completion of the

 

12 week treatment, results indicated that the more exposure the patient had to self-compassion treatment, it culminated an observable change in eating disorder symptoms. It was also demonstrated that patients who experienced larger decreases in levels of shame in their first four weeks of treatment, had a faster remission rate overall during the 12 week period. A majority of the patients reported feeling a new calmness within themselves that they had not experienced before. With these facts stated, the hypothesis that short term inpatient treatment of CFT is effective was proven in this study.

In comparison, another study was conducted by Kelly and Carter (2012) to examine the effectiveness of a 13 month long outpatient CFT treatment program. The sample consisted of 51 who were admitted to an intensive hospital-based eating program in Canada. Participants were between the ages of 18-55 years, and 97% of the group was made up of women. Three questionnaires were given to gather a baseline measure of self-criticism and self-assurance, self- esteem, and shame. The scale for self-criticism and self-assurance asked participants to rate how they react when a situation goes wrong for them. Self-esteem was measured by asking the individuals to evaluate how positively they view themselves. The participants were asked to rate how frequently they felt shame at their own actions. The study found that the patients did not overcome their illness quickly, 67% of the sample reported eating disorder symptoms by the end of the 13 month trial period.

By comparing these two studies it is evident that inpatient CFT programs are more effective. Inpatient programs are more effective to treat eating disorders because the patient has a more constant opportunity to build inner-compassion, which in turn, offsets the preservation of an eating disorder. The studies show this inclination, due to the fact the results of the outpatient

 

 

 

program indicated high relapse rates. With the relapse rate being over half the sample size, the effectiveness of outpatient treatment cannot be deemed less effective than inpatient therapy. Conclusion

The intent of this lab was to analyze the health effects of different eating disorders, to establish the link between feelings of shame and eating pathologies, and the comparison of CFT

inpatient versus outpatient program effectiveness.

 

There were various limitations to these case studies. For instance, there are variables not documented which could have affected the results of the observations. These variables are age, gender, and family involvement.

There was not a specific age group tested. Middle aged people may not respond to treatment in the exact same way a teenager would. In future studies, focusing on specific age groups to document how the disorder develops could prove to be more productive. The studies could also investigate the question of whether older people who suffer from eating disorders have newly developed the illness or if they are relapsing into an existing one.

The research was also based primarily on females. Perhaps a comparison study could be conducted to observe how males and females first react to feelings of shame, and then also how effective CFT treatment is for each gender.

Family and peer involvement is an important aspect of CFT. The support of family members assists in the recovery of an eating disorder patient due to the added moral support. The studies discussed did not mention the level of recovery when the family or peers were not supportive. Seeing as the stability of the patient is dependent on the ability to diminish their

 

 

 

feelings of shame, there is a possibility that without the support of family and friends they are more likely to relapse. Further analysis could help to prove this.

In summary, through comparison of these studies it is proven that different types of shame result in different eating pathologies. Bulimia nervosa is more likely to develop when a person suffers from feelings of external shame; whereas when a person encounters feelings of internal shame they are more likely to generate anorexia nervosa. The health risks are identified and it is confirmed that anorexia and bulimia are illnesses which take over the mind and body. It is  also  confirmed  that  inpatient  care  is  more  effective  than  outpatient  care  when  using compassion focused therapy. It was proven more effective because the patient has an opportunity to be more thoroughly exposed to the ideals compassion focused therapy aims for. When patients are taught to treat their shame alongside their eating disorder, they will achieve a much higher success rate against relapse. The dangers produced by eating disorders can be minimized if counteracted by evoking self-accepting behavior

 

 

The Evolution of Feminism

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The Evolution of Feminism

Introduction

The feminist movement which encompasses a variety of activities, programs and campaings across the globe to maintain gender equality and mutual understanding (Abeyesekera, 1995, p. 3) began in the mid 19th century and is active now. Since the early times of human society development, women have been oppressed, discarded or underestimated in a number of ways – from mere sexual exploitation and reducing their lives to child-bearing and rearing to devaluing their work at market place and overlooking their needs and aspirations at all. Today, women have battered their inferiority positions and gained control over their lives, but still as Kimberley Reader, a contributor to The Independent puts it, “the battles were never won” (Reader, 2012).

We have come a long way since the initial stages of feminism evolvement, but we have not come to the destination we have been heading yet, i.e. to the equality between men and women and “people-centred sustainable development” (Miranda, 2005, p. 2). In this paper, I am going to address the research question: Has feminism evolved positively or negatively over the years? Looking at the issue of women’s movement from historical, psychological and sociological perspectives, I advance the hypothesis that feminism has evolved positively on the social, economic and political platforms.

Discussion

On the social platform, feminism has evolved from utter female outrage at their subordinate status in society and their men-hate to reconsidering sexuality and gender roles and fighting stereotypes and prejudices in different sections of social life. As David M. Buss & David P. Schmitt argue, the society has always been patriarchal, since men used to provide women with resourses and in early societies women responded agreeably to this setting tending to mate with the man who had “greater control over the resourses” (Buss & Schmitt, 2011, p. 4). Later, male physical strength and endurability transformed into abusing their physical power over women – they established patriarchal society and defined gender roles where women appeared inferior to them. The latter had to fight their discrimination in at least two dimensions: their appearance and their behavour.

When it comes to discussing appearance, the generally accepted truth in our society is that beauty is a social construct (Buss & Schmitt, 2011, p. 9) – a woman is never beautiful per se, the community imposes certain ideas on women determining what is good in their looks and what should be altered. Feminist movement changed the ideal of female beauty drastically and these changes are good and beneficial for society at large. In patriarchal society, men established the rules how women should look and dress. The scope of this problem was not limited only by “dress code” but it was also restricted bodily experiences. While women did won the fight over the right to wear trousers, shorts and other items of clothes previously considered unacceptable, the battle over body image was longer, tougher and it is not over yet.

While women now are free to wear what they want, the ideas concerniting female weight and figure still impinge on them. According to Kendyl Klein, our society “idealizes the sickly thin” women and “shames the overweight” (Klein, 2013, p. 15). The ideal of a skinny body with clear-cut cheekbones and palish face has been advertised by the media and commonly worshipped. It makes women unhappy about their bodies and traumatizes them in their efforts to meet the demands of the society. People look down at obesity and in pursuit of thinness women are ready to go to any lengths and overcome everything. In this vein, I favour the tendency to promote self-respect, acceptance and care, and I assume this problem will be solved in future. One of the troubles here that still drives us back to ancestral barbarity is female body mutilations. We do feel happy that women are less beaten and abused by men now and can protect themselves, but the world is still blind to female genital mutilation, for instance, a set of permanent physical changes to female genitalia which is still performed in some countries (Wade, 2009, p. 2). This testifies to the fact that still some cruelty and ignorance are due to overcome.

As for social roles, no one will deny the feminists’ contribution to redefining gender roles. Today, the social expectations attributed to men and women dictating certain models of femininity and masculinity have changed. No one should now comply with men’s role as a breadwinner and women’s role as a caregiver. Over the past several decades, the images of a man and a woman have successfully gone through numerous makeovers. And these makeovers bring about economic changes as well.

On the economic platform, feminism contributed much to sustainable development. Again, if we remember the origins of patriarchy as being linked to resources acquisition (Buss & Schmitt, 2011, p. 4), the question why women were forbidden to work and earn money is now answered – if males provided females with resourses, they could maintain power and control over them, considering them the part of their own property and resources. In such a way, women could not get education, work and develop their skills and earn money. Feminism did a good job breeding educated, motivated and highflying women, who succeed in their chosen field, take top offices and earn bundles of cash.

In course of history, the role of women in economic development has always been underestimated. All female work was rendered “secondary and unimportant” (Armstrong & Connelly, 1989, p. 12). A woman was left with her daily household duties and child-rearing which let her no time for self-development. Earlier, for example, water supplies, cooking and washing were so time- and effort-consuming, that women could not indulge in anything large scale. Recently, due to feminist careful attention to female abilities and potentials, women have overcome numerous constraints and stepped into the business and economic development. Now they stand rampant in the marketplace understanding clearly their needs, desires and possibilities. Sarah Bradshaw, Joshua Castellino & Bineta Diop, leading a global initiative “Sustainable Development,” proved that society and governments should support investing in women, because they have a great potential in the process of economic development (Bradshaw, Castellino & Diop, 2013, p. 11).

Gender matters much for sustainable economic development. After women equaled men in education and skills, their work force will result in lots of economic gains on the national level. In developing economies, for example, female skilled work is among the first important factors reducing poverty. Besides, when women can reveal their talents in the fullest, there will be good opportunities to close various skill gaps that exist due to male dominance in business and manufacture. When women are supported, it pays off.

On the political platform, feminist movement fostered stepping of women into politics and management, but this process was slow and gradual. The situation in the United Kingdom, for example, shows that women are underrepresented in politics in the UK. The Independent provides the statistics with only 144 women MPs out of 650 (Reader, 2012). It was back in 2012. Now we see positive changes. But these changes are still hampered by racial attitudes and bias against female leaders (Hossein, 2013, p. 52).

Strong tendency to women’s empowerment requires accurate policies and democratic governance. Rosa Linda T. Miranda (2005) recommends two strategies. First, certain measures should be taken “to ensure women’s equal access to power structures” and then full participation in the process. Sometimes, women just lack acces to power structures, she claims. And second, women should have a possibility “to participate in decision-making and leadership” (Miranda, 2005, p. 2). Both strategies should be addressed by all establishments. The problem is that on their way to power women have to cope with numerous challenges. I see at least two kinds of obstacles on the way to power for them: first, it’s their inner barriers, and second, outer restrictions that prevent from self-promotion.

As for the inner barriers, there is still a common belief that for women, politics and management are not the spheres where they are likely to succeed and realize themselves. An ancient archetype of a woman as a caregiver is still alive in many people’s minds and many still question the necessity of women’s participation in politics and management. Since early childhood, girls are taught to avoid those traits of character that are necessary for political and managerial carrerrs – competitiveness, self-assertiveness, boldness and the ability to speak up openly for themselves. In such a way, some women still doubt their own abilities as leaders and governors preferring to embrace less challenging positions. As for the outer restrictions, women have a comparatively limited access to power and meager opportunities to enter the political arena. Not only gender stereotypes, but lack of proper legislation sometimes impedes political ambitions of women. To eliminate or at least to narrow the gender gap in politics is an imperative now.

Feminist movement contributed a lot to changing this situation and amending it. More and more women are now elected. Among them there are really strong leaders, skilled managers and tough negotiatirs who never give way to a male colleague. There are hot tempered and energetic, breathing fire; there are rational, with cold reason, those why rely on logic and manipulate the arguments. They are different, but they are and they should be.

Women are very important in government and management. Being caretakers by nature, they will definitely secure family values on the nationwide – if not global – level, they will support households and promote human rights everywhere they tread. Women in power are more likely to advance social issues and pass family-friendly legislations.

Conclusion

In conclusion, feminism today has become a global cause and gender issues constitute an indispensable part of the social, economic and political life. Women’s movement has progressed positively on the social, economic and political platforms – women have battered their inferiority positions and gained control over their lives. The contribution of women’s movement to gender equality and sustainable development is large and unquestionable, and the question Judith Worell asked back in 2000 – if feminism is “revolution or evolution” (Worell, 2000, p. 183) – can get a more or less clear answer now – it is evolution. Feminist ideas evolved gradually and its move throughout centuries was hard and bumpy. There were hardships, challenges and frustrations. But there is no growth without pain, and the fact that the image of a woman has successfully transformed from the resourse to the personality is our generation’s gift.

 

 

References

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Armstrong, P., & Connelly, M. P. (1989). Feminist political economy: An introduction. Studies     in Political Economy, 30(1), 5-12. Retrieved from <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/19187033.1989.11675504>

Bradshaw, S., Castellino, J., & Diop, B. (2013). Women’s role in economic development: Overcoming the constraints. Sustainable Development Solutions Network. Retrieved from    <http://unsdsn.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/130520-Women-Economic-Development-Paper-for-HLP.pdf>

Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (2011). Evolutionary psychology and feminism. Sex Roles, 64(9-    10), 768. Retrieved from < http://www.bradley.edu/dotAsset/196924.pdf >

Hossein, C. S. (2013). Using a Black feminist framework: A study comparing bias against             female entrepreneurs in Caribbean micro-banking. Intersectionalities: A Global Journal      of Social Work Analysis, Research, Polity, and Practice, 2(1), 51-70. Retrieved from <             http://journals.library.mun.ca/ojs/index.php/IJ/article/viewFile/697/716>

Klein, K. M. (2013). Why Don’t I Look Like Her? The Impact of Social Media on Female Body Image. Claremont College. Retrieved from <http://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1749&context=cmc_theses>

Miranda, R. L. (2005, October). Impact of women’s participation and leadership on outcomes.     In Prepared for the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA), Division for           the Advancement of Women (DAW), Expert Group Meeting on “Equal participation of    women and men in decision-making processes, with particular emphasis on political participation and leadership (Vol. 24). Retrieved from <             http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/eql-men/docs/EP.7_rev.pdf>

Reader, K. (2012).Feminism today: the fight has changed, the stereotypes remain, and the cause will never die. The Independent. Retrieved from <http://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/feminism-today-the-fight-has-changed-the-stereotypes-remain-and-the-cause-will-never-die-8364343.html>

Wade, L. (2009). The Evolution of Feminist Thought About Female Genital Cutting. News: The Newsletter of Sociologists for Women in Society, (26). Retrieved from <https://www.socwomen.org/wp-content/uploads/Wade-The-Evolution-of-Feminist-Thought-About-Female-Genital-Cutting.pdf>

Worell, J. (2000). Feminism in psychology: Revolution or evolution?. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 571(1), 183-196. Retrieved from <             http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/~pchsiung/summer/SCMEDIA/Worell.pdf >